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Pandya dynasty
Ancient Tamil dynasty

The Pandya dynasty, one of the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, ruled South India and northern Sri Lanka from at least the 4th century BCE through its golden age in the 13th century under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I. Known for patronizing the legendary Sangams held in Madurai, their capital, the Pandyas were contemporaries and rivals of the Cholas and Pallavas. They controlled important cultural sites such as the Meenakshi Temple and played a key role in Tamil literature and religion, briefly embracing Jainism. Despite decline due to invasions like the Khalji invasion and the rise of the Madurai Sultanate, the Pandya legacy remains integral to South Indian history.

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Etymology and origin legends

The etymology of Pandya is still a matter of considerable speculation among scholars. One theory is that the word pandya is derived from the ancient Tamil word "pandu" meaning "old".34 The theory suggests that in early historic Tamil lexicon the word pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit.35 Another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Sanskrit word Pandu to mean white or pale, in reference to king Pandu and the Pandavas.36 Apart from these derivations mentioned, several other theories do appear in historical studies.37

According to the ancient Tamil legends, the three brothers Cheran, Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at the southern city of Korkai. While Pandya remained at home, his two brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west.38 Epic poem Silappatikaram mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish.39 Indian traditions such as the Great Epics and the Puranas often associate southern India with Sage Agastya (who had his ashrama in the south). Agastya appears prominently in medieval Tamil literature also.40

Folklores attribute Alli Rani (meaning "the queen Alli") as one of the early historic rulers of the Pandyas. She is attributed as an "amazonian queen" whose servants were men and administrative officials and army were women.41 She is thought of ruling the whole western and northern coast of Sri Lanka from her capital Kudiramalai, where remains of what is thought of as her fort are found.42 She is sometimes seen as an incarnation of the Pandya associated gods, Meenakshi and Kannagi.43

Chandra-vamsa

The medieval Pandya kings were claimed to have belonged to the Chandra-vamsa or the Lunar Race.44 They claimed Pururavas and Nahusha as ancestors.45 Pururavas is listed as one of the ancestors in the Velvikudi Inscription of Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I (Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan).46

Sources of Pandya history

The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya, Megasthenes mentions Queens of Pandyas as 'Pandaia' and locates them in the south of India extending into the ocean. It consisted of 365 villages which met the needs of the royal palace each day of the year. He described the queen Pandaie as daughter of Heracles (by some author as Shiva or Krishna).47 Madurai, capital of Pandyas is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) as 'Mathura of the south'.48

Archaeological sources

Pandyas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE). In his inscriptions (2nd and 13th Major Rock Edict49), Asoka refers to the peoples of south India – the Cholas, the Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras.5051 These polities, possibly not part of the Maurya empire, were on friendly terms with Asoka:

The conquest by dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni river. (Major Rock Edict No.13), Ven. S. Dhammika translation52

Everywhere within the conquered province of King Piyadasi (Ashoka), the beloved of the gods, as well as in the parts occupied by the faithful, such as Chola, Pandya, Satiyaputra, and Keralaputra, even as far as Tambapanni (Ceylon) and within the dominions the Greek (of which Antiochus generals are the rulers ) everywhere the heaven-beloved Raja Piyadasi’s double system of medical aid is established- both medical aid for men and medical aid for animals. (Major Rock Edict No.2), James Prinsep translation53

The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the Tamil-Brahmi Mangulam inscription (near Madurai) assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE.54 The record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription, Nedunjeliyan, Kadalan, and Izhanchadikan predate rulers such as Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan and Palyaga-salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi.5556

Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during c. 1st century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed an old confederacy of Tamil countries ("the tamira–desa–sanghata") which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large number of pearls from the Pandyas.57

Silver punch-marked coins with the fish symbol of the Pandyas dating from around the same time have also been found.58

Early Tamil literature

The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry.59 The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers.60 According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas. Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Sangams and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas.61

Pandya rulers from early historic south India6263

  • Mudattirumaran
  • Koon Pandya
  • Nedunjeliyan I ("Aariyap Padai Kadantha")
  • Puda-Pandya
  • Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludi64
  • Nedunjeliyan II
  • Nan Maran
  • Nedunj Cheliyan III ("Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra")65
  • Maran Valudi
  • Kadalan Valuthi
  • Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan
  • Ukkirap Peruvaludi
  • Bootha Pāndiyan
  • Arivudainampi

Pandya rulers – such as Nedunjeliyan, the Victor of Talaiyalanganam, and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls ("the Palyaga-salai") – find mention in several poems (such as Mathuraikkanci).6667

Besides several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works – Mathuraikkanci and Netunalvatai – which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandya country during the early historic period.6869 The Purananuru and Agananuru collections contain poems sung in praise of various Pandya rulers and also poems that were claimed to be composed by the rulers themselves.70

Besides the poems, king Peruvaludi is also mentioned in later copper-plate grant (8th–9th century CE).71 In the work Mathuraikkanci, the author Mankudi Maruthanar, refers to his patron, Talaihalanganum Nedunjeliyan, as the Lord of Korkai and the Warlord of the Southern Parathavar People.72 It contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan. In the famous battle of Talaiyalanganam (in east Tanjore), the Pandya is said to have defeated his enemies (which included the Chera and the Chola).73 He is also praised for his victory of Mizhalai and Mutturu, two "vel" centres along the ocean (in Pudukkottai).74 The Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan's palace.75

Foreign sources

The Buddhist text Mahavamsa (composed in the 5th century CE) mentions a Pandya king in the context of Prince Vijaya's (543–505 BCE) arrival in Sri Lanka with his 700 followers.

  • According to the Mahavamsa, emissaries laden with precious gifts were sent from Sri Lanka to the city of Madhura in southern India. Their mission was to secure a bride for Prince Vijaya. The Pandya King of Madurai agreed to the proposal. He not only sent his own daughter to marry Prince Vijaya but also requested other families to offer their daughters to marry the prince's ministers and retainers. So, along with the Princess and hundreds of maidens, craftsmen and a thousand families from the eighteen guilds were also sent to Sri Lanka.76
  • Greek and Latin sources (early centuries CE) refer to the ancient Tamil country, same as the Tamilakam, as "Lymyrike" or "Damirice" (or Dymirice/Dimirixe or Damirice) and its ruling families.77
  • Pandyas are also mentioned by Greek author Megasthenes (4th century BCE) where he writes about the south Indian kingdom being ruled by women.78 He described the Pandya country in Indika as "occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea". According to his account, the kingdom had 365 villages, each of which was expected to meet the needs of the royal household for one day in the year. He described the Pandya queen at the time, Pandaia as the daughter of Herakles.7980
  • Pliny the Elder refers to the Pandya ruler of Madurai in general terms (first century CE).81
  • The author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (first century CE) describes the riches of a "Pandian kingdom"8283

    ...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place [Nelcynda] also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the [Arabian] sea....84

  • The country of the Pandyas was described as Pandya Mediterranea and Modura Regia Pandionis by Ptolemy (c. 140 CE85).86
  • Strabo states that an Indian king called Pandion sent Augustus Caesar "presents and gifts of honour".8788 The 1st-century Greek historian Nicolaus of Damascus met, at Antioch, the ambassador sent by a king from India "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus c. 13 CE (Strabo XV.4 and 73).8990
  • The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361 CE.91
  • Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd-century CE text, the Weilüe, mentions the Panyue kingdom:

    ...the kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu (northern India) ...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese ...

  • Scholar John E. Hill identified Panyue as the Pandya kingdom.92 However, others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern Burma93 or Assam.94
  • The Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions a kingdom further south from Kanchipuram, a kingdom named Malakutta, identified with Madurai described by his Buddhist friends at Kanchipuram.95
  • In the later part of the 13th century (in 1288 and 1293 CE) Venetian traveller Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people.9697

    The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and [considered] better than the others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols as black and their devils white as snow. For they say that god and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That is why they portray them as I have described.98

History

Early historic Pandyas

Main article: Early Pandyan Kingdom

Mauryan emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE) seems to have been on friendly terms with the people of south India and Sri Lanka (the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiya Putras, the Kerala Putras and the Tamraparnis). There are no indications that Asoka tried to conquer the extreme south India (the Tamilakam – the Abode of the Tamils).99

The three chiefly lines of early historic south India – the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas – were known as the mu-vendar ("the three vendars"). They were traditionally based at their original headquarters in the interior Tamil Nadu (Karur, Madurai and Uraiyur respectively).100 The powerful chiefdoms of the three ventar dominated the political and economic life of early historic south India.101 The frequent conflicts between the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya are well documented in ancient (the Sangam) Tamil poetry.102 The Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas also controlled the ports of Muziris (Muchiri), Korkai and Kaveri respectively (for the trade with the Graeco-Roman world).103 The gradual shift from chiefdoms to kingdoms seems to have occurred in the following period.104

The famous inscription of king Kharavela at Hathigumpha (mid-first century BCE105) mentions the defeat of a confederacy of the "Tramira" countries which had been a threat to Kalinga. It also remembers the precious pearls brought to the capital as booty from the "Pandya" realm.106 The Pandya chiefdom was famous for its pearl fisheries and silk industry.107 Korkai and Alagankulam are believed to have been the exchange centres of the Pandyas. Korkai, a port at the mouth of the river Tambraparni, was linked to the famous pearl fisheries and Alagankulam was also developed as a port.108

Several coins attributed to early historic Pandyas are found were Severalin the region.109 Inscriptions, datable to c. 2nd century BCE, recording royal grants – both from royals and wealthy commoners – were also discovered from the Pandya country.110

The Pandya seems to be the most prominent of the three "ventar" rulers. There are even references to a Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries.111 Madurai, in south Tamil Nadu, was the most important cultural centre in south India as the core of the Tamil speakers.112 Megalithic relics such as menhirs, dolmens, urn burials, stone circles and rock-cut chambers/passages can be found in south India. Burial goods include iron objects, ivory ornaments, Black-and-Red Ware and even some Roman Imperial coins.113 The so-called "velir" hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials.114

Greek and Latin accounts (early centuries CE), coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE.115 The early Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, were eventually displaced by the Kalabhra dynasty.116

Medieval Pandyas

Pandya revival (7th–10th centuries CE)

The Pandya kingdom was revived by king Kadungon (r. 590–620 CE117) towards the end of the 6th-century CE.118119 In the Velvikudi inscription, a later copper-plate, Kadungon appears as the "destroyer" of the "anti-Brahmanical" Kalabhra kings.120 With the decline of the Kalabhra dynasty, the Pandyas grew steadily in power and territory. With the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.

From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Badami Chalukyas were eventually replaced by the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.121 The Pandyas took on the growing Pallava ambitions in south India, and from time to time they also joined in alliances with the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau (such as with the Gangas of Talakad in late 8th century CE).122 In the middle of the 9th century, the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as Kumbakonam (north-east of Tanjore on the Kollidam river).123

Sendan (r. 654–70 CE), the third king of the Pandyas of Madurai, is known for expanding his kingdom to the Chera country (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala). Arikesari Maravarman (r. 670–700 CE), the fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi. Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (r. 630–668 CE), the famous conqueror of Badami, claimed to have defeated the Pandyas. Chalukya King Paramesvaravarman I "Vikramaditya" (r. 670–700 CE) is known to have fought battles with the Pallavas, the Gangas, and probably with the Pandyas too, on the Kaveri basin.124

Kirtivarman II (r. 744/5–55 CE), the last Chalukya king, managed to lose to his southern countries as a result of his battles with the Pandyas. Pandya kings Maravarman Rajasimha I (r. 730–65 CE) and Nedunjadaiyan/Varagunavarman I (r. 765–815 CE) threatened Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (r. 731–96 CE) who had managed to defeat the Gangas in c. 760 CE. Varagunavarman I invaded the Pallava country and conquered the Kongu country (western Tamil Nadu) and Venadu (south Kerala). King Srimara Srivallabha (r. 815–62 CE) sailed to Sri Lanka, subjugated and overpowered King Sena I, and sacked his capital Anuradhapura (the Panya invasion of Sri Lanka followed a period of vassalage).125 However, Srimara Srivallabha was soon overpowered by Pallava king Nripatunga (r. 859–99 CE). Sena II, the king of Sri Lanka, invaded the Pandya country, sacked Madurai and chose Varagunavarman II (r. c. 862–880 CE126) as the new king soon after.127 It is proposed that the start of the Kollam Era, the Kerala calendar, in 825 CE marked the liberation of Venadu from Pandya control.128

During the rule of Dantivarman (r. 796–847 CE), the Pallava territory was reduced by the encroachment from the Pandyas from the south (and Rashtrakutas and the Telugu-Cholas from nand orth). Pallava king Nandivarman III (r. 846–69 CE) was able to defeat the Pandyas and Telugu-Cholas (and even the Rashtrakutas) with the help of the Gangas and the emerging Cholas.129

Pandya kings (6th–10th century CE)
Pandya rulerReignRef.
Kadungonc. 590–620 CE130131
Maravarman Avanisulamanic. 620–645 CE132
Cheliyan Sendan (Chendan)c. 654–670 CE133134
Arikesari Maravarman (Parankusan)c. 670–700 CE135136
Ko Chadaiyan Ranadhirac. 700–730 CE137
Maravarman Rajasimha Ic. 730–765 CE138139
Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan

(Varaguna-varman I)

c. 765–815 CE140141
Maravarman Srimara Srivallabhac. 815–862 CE142
Varaguna-varman IIc. 862–880 CE143
Parantaka Viranarayanac. 880–900/905 CE144
Maravarman Rajasimha IIc. 900–920 CE145

Under Chola influence (10th–13th centuries)

See also: Pandyan Civil War (1169-1177)

While the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas were busy engaging the Pallavas, with the Gangas and the Simhalas (Sri Lanka) also in the mix, the Cholas emerged from the Kaveri delta and took on the chieftains of Thanjavur146 (the Mutharaiyar chieftain had transferred their loyalty from the Pallava to the Pandya147). The Chola king Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Mutharaiyar chieftain around c. 850 CE.148 The Pandya control north of the Kaveri river was severely weakened by this move (and straightened the position of the Pallava ruler Nripatunga).149 Pandya ruler Varaguna-varman II (r. c. 862–880 CE150) responded by marching into the Chola country and facing a formidable alliance of Pallava prince Aparajita, the Chola king Aditya I and the Ganga king Prithvipati I. The Pandya king suffered a crushing defeat (c. 880 CE) in a battle fought near Kumbakonam.151

By c. 897 CE, Chola king Aditya I was the master of the old Pallava, Ganga and Kongu countries. It is a possibility that Aditya I conquered the Kongu country from the Pandya king Parantaka Viranarayana (r. 880–900 CE).152 Parantaka I, successor to Aditya, invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II (hence the title "Madurai Konda").153 Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V, still got defeated by Parantaka I in the battle of Vellur, and fled to Sri Lanka. Rajasimha then found refuge in the Chera country, leaving even his royal insignia in Sri Lanka, the home of his mother.154155

The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta-lead confederacy in the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE.156 By mid-950s, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality (its vassals in the extreme south had proclaimed their independence).157 It is a possibility that Pandya ruler Vira Pandya defeated Chola king Gandaraditya and claimed independence.158 Chola ruler Sundara Parantaka II (r. 957–73) responded by defeating Vira Pandya I in two battles (and Chola prince Aditya II killed Vira Pandya on the second occasion). The Pandyas were assisted by the Sri Lanka forces of King Mahinda IV.159

Chola emperor Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE) is known to have attacked the Pandyas.160 He fought against an alliance of the Pandya, Chera and Sri Lankan kings, and defeated the Cheras and "deprived" the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai.161 Emperor Rajendra I continued to occupy the Pandya kingdom, and even appointed a series of Chola viceroys with the title "Chola Pandya" to rule from Madurai (over Pandya and Western Chera/Kerala countries). The very beginning of Chola emperor Kulottunga's rule (r. from 1070 CE) was marked by the loss of Sri Lanka and a rebellion in the Pandya country.162

The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country (between princes Parakrama Pandya and Kulasekhara Pandya). The neighbouring kingdoms of Sri Lanka, under Parakramabahu I, Venadu Chera/Kerala, under the Kulasekharas,163 and the Cholas, under Rajadhiraja II and Kulottunga III, joined in and took sides with any of the two princes or their kins.164165

Pandya kings (10th century–first half of 11th century CE):

  • Sundara Pandya I
  • Vira Pandya I (Veerapandyan)
  • Vira Pandya II
  • Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa
  • Srivallabha Manakulachala (1101–1124 CE)
  • Maravarman Srivallabha (1132–1161 CE)
  • Parakrama I (1161–1162 CE)
  • Kulasekara III
  • Vira Pandya III
  • Jatavarman Srivallabha (1175–1180 CE)
  • Jatavarman Kulasekara I (1190–1216 CE)166

Imperial Pandyas (13th–14th centuries)

The Pandya empire included extensive territories, at times including large portions of south India and Sri Lanka. The rule of the empire was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest. The Pandya king at Madurai thus controlled these vast regions through the collateral family branches subject to Madurai.167168

Pandya kings (13th–14th centuries CE)
Pandya rulerReign
Maravarman Sundara I1216–1238 CE
Sadayavarman Kulasekaran II1238–1240 CE
Maravarman Sundara II1238–1251 CE
Jatavarman Sundara I1251–1268 CE
Maravarman Kulasekara I1268–1310 CE
Sundara Pandya IV1309–1327 CE
Vira Pandya IV1309–1345 CE

Maravarman Sundara I

The foundation for the Pandya supremacy in south India was laid by Maravarman Sundara I early in the 13th century.169 He succeeded his older brother Jatavarman Kulasekhara in 1216.170 He invaded the Chola country, sacked Uraiyur and Thanjavur, and drove the Chola king Kulothunga III into exile.171172 The Chola king subsequently made a formal submission to Maravarman Sundara I and acknowledged his overlordship.173 Attempts by the next Chola king Rajaraja III (1216 – 46 CE174) for self-rule (to stop the Pandya invasion into the Chola country175), with the help of the Hoysalas king Narasimha II (r. 1220 – 1238 CE), resulted in a battle between the Pandya and Hoysala forces at Mahendramangalam on the Kaveri Valley. Maravarman Sundara I was defeated and Rajaraja III was restored in the Chola country.176 Sometime later Chola prince Rajendra III attacked the Pandyas and defeated two Pandya royals including Maravarman Sundara II.177 Hoysala king Somesvara (r. 1233 – 1267 CE178) then came to the aid of the Pandyas, defeated Rajendra III and then made peace with the Cholas.179180

Jatavarman Sundara I

Jatavarman Sundara I ascended the Pandya throne in 1251 CE.181 He led his army to the Chola country (even as far as Nellore), to Sri Lanka and to south Kerala.182 He was also successful in confining the Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau (the ancient Chola country was now overrun by the Pandyas183).184 Kanchi functioned as the second major city in the kingdom.185 In his conquests, Jatavarman Sundara I assisted joined number of Pandya royals such as Jatavarman Vira Pandya.186

Jatavarman Sundara I subdued Rajendra II around 1258–1260 CE and made him pay tribute.187 The rule of the Cholas ended c. 1279 with Rajendra III.188 The Pandya attacked the Hoysalas in the Kaveri and captured the fort of Kannanur Koppam.189 Hoysala king Somesvara was forced to fall back into the Mysore Plateau.190 The Hoysala king, pressed by enemies from north and south, "assigned" the southern half of his kingdom to his younger son Ramanatha (r. 1254–1292191). Somesvara was eventually killed by the Pandya in 1262 CE.192 Ramanatha managed to recover Kannanur and hold against the Pandya power.193194195 Jatavarman Sundara I also came into conflict with the Kadava ruler Kopperunjinga II.196197 It seems that Bana (Magadai) and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas.198 Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati (1199–1262199).200 Sri Lanka was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258201 and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira II between 1262 and 1264 CE.202 The island was again invaded and defeated by Jatavarman Vira II in 1270 CE.203

Maravarman Kulasekara I

Sundara Pandya I (died in 1268) was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekara I.204 Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and Rajendra III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I.205 Maravarman Kulasekara I, now virtually unchallenged, ruled over the Chola country and southern Tamil speaking portions of Hoysala kingdom. He also invaded Sri Lanka, ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I, who "carried away to the Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic", and the wealth of the island.206 Sri Lanka remained under Pandya control until c. 1308–1309 CE.207

Decline of Pandyas

After the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1310), his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV fought a war of succession for control of the empire. It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him (who in turn was defeated by Sundara Pandya after a short period).208 Unfortunately, the Pandya civil war coincided with the Khalji raids in south India.209 Taking advantage of the political situation, the neighbouring Hoysala king Ballala III invaded the Pandya territory. However, Ballala had to retreat to his capital, when Alauddin Khalji's general Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time.210 After subjugating Ballala III, the Khalji forces marched to the Pandya territory in March 1311.211 The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters, and the Khaljis pursued them unsuccessfully.212213 By late April 1311, the Khaljis gave up their plans to pursue the Pandya princes, and returned to Delhi with the plunder.214215 By 1312 the Pandya control over south Kerala was also lost.216217

After the departure of the Khaljis, Vira and Sundara Pandya resumed their conflict. Sundara Pandya was defeated and sought help from the Khaljis. With their help, he regained control of the South Arcot region by 1314.218 Subsequently, there were two more expeditions from the sultanate in 1314 led by Khusro Khan and in 1323 by Jauna Khan under the Punjab-born sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq.219

The family quarrels and the sultanate invasions shattered the Pandya empire beyond revival220 and coinage discoveries made imply that the Pandyas were left with the old South Arcot region.221 In 1323, the Jaffna kingdom declared its independence from the crumbling Pandya influence.222223

Tenkasi Pandyas (14th–16th centuries)

The Pandya kings from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya to his successors who ruled with Tenkasi as their capital.224 With the invasion of the Sultanates, Vijayanagaras, and Nayakars from the fourteenth century onwards, the Pandyas lost their traditional capital of Madurai and shifted to cities like Tenkasi and Tirunelveli.225 Tenkasi was the last capital of the Pandyas.226 All the Pandyas from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya and his next generations were crowned in the Adheenam Mutt227 in Kasi Viswanathar temple.228 During the same period, some Pandyas ruled with Tirunelveli as their capital. Kayatharu, Vadakkuvalliyur, and Ukkirankottai are some of their major cities. Inscriptions on them are found in Tenkasi's Kasi Viswanathar temple, Brahmadesam, Tirunelveli, Cheranmadevi, Ambasamudram, Kalakkad and Pudukkottai. The last Pandyan king to be known in the history of the Pandyas was Kolakonda, who was also among the Tenkasi Pandyas.

Although the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayaks ruled Madurai after the 14th century, they were occasionally opposed by the Pandyas. Sometimes they have ruled Madurai. Prominent among them were Saadavarman Vikrama Pandya (1401–1422 AD) and his son, Arikesari Parakrama Pandya.229 They had built 32 forts around Madurai. Later, when Vishwanatha Nayakkar became the Madurai Mandalasuvaran, he feared Pandya's resurgence in Madurai. He divided Madurai into 72 districts, including 16 districts of those closest to the Pandyas.230 He gave them positions and made them separate from the Pandyas. This made Pandyas lose Madurai forever.231

KingPeriod
Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya1422–1463 AD
Kulasekara Pandiyan III1429–1473 AD
Aksharan Perumal Parakrama Pandya1473–1506 AD
Kulasekara Pandya1479–1499 AD
Sadaverman Sewallapa Pandya1534–1543 AD
Parakrama Kulasekaran1543–1552 AD
Nelveli Maran1552–1564 AD
Sadaavarman Adeevirama Pandya1564–1604 AD
Varathuranga Pandya1588–1612 AD
Varagunarama Pandya1613–1618 AD
Kollankondan(N.A.)

Legacy

While the previous sultanate raids were content with plunder, the Tughluqs under Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughluq232) annexed the former Pandya dominions to the sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. Most of south India came under the sultanate rule and was divided into five provinces – Devagiri, Tiling, Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar.233 Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan was appointed governor of the newly created southernmost Ma'bar province.234235 In c. 1334, Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan declared his independence and created Madurai sultanate.236 The Pandyas shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule a small area until the end of the 16th century as Tenkasi Pandyas.237

Bukka Raya I of Vijayanagara empire conquered the city of Madurai in c. 1370,238 imprisoned the sultan, released and restored Arcot's prince Sambuva Raya to the throne. Bukka Raya I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region. Meanwhile, the Madurai sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors of Vijayanagara in 1378.239 In 1529 the Nayak governors declared independence and established Madurai Nayak dynasty.240

Economy

Early history

The Pandya country, located at the extreme southwestern tip of South Asia, served as an important meeting point throughout the history of India. The location was economically and geopolitically significant as a key point connecting the shipping between Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Graeco-Roman merchants frequented the ancient Tamil country, present day south India and Sri Lanka, securing contacts with the Tamil chiefdoms of the Pandya, Chola and Chera families.241 The western sailors also established several trading settlements on the harbours of the ancient Tamil region.242 The trade with South Asia by the Greco-Roman world flourished since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty243 a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.244245 The contacts between south India and the Middle East continued even after the Byzantium's loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea246 in the 7th century CE.

The early historic Pandya country was famous for its supply of pearls. The ancient port of Korkai, in present-day Thoothukudi, was the centre of the pearl trade. Written records from Graeco-Roman and Egyptian voyagers give details about the pearl fisheries off the Gulf of Mannar. Greek historian Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries, indicating that the Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade.247 Convicts were according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea used as pearl divers in Korkai.248 The Periplus even mentions that "pearls inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana".249 The pearls from the Pandya country were also in demand in the kingdoms of north India.250 Literary references of the pearl fishing mention how the fishermen, who dive into the sea, avoid attacks from sharks, bring up the right-whorled chank and blow on the sounding shell.251

Pandya coinage

See also: Pandya coinage

The early coins of Tamilakam bore the symbols of the Three Crowned Kings, the tiger, the fish and the bow, representing the symbols of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.252 Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times. The Pandyas had issued silver punch-marked and die-struck copper coins in the early period.253 A few gold coins were attributed to the Pandya rulers of this period. These coins bore the image of fish, singly or in pairs, which were their emblem.254

Some of the coins had the names Sundara, Sundara Pandya or merely the letter 'Su' were etched. Some of the coins bore a boar with the legend of 'Vira-Pandya.255 It had been said that those coins were issued by the Pandyas and the feudatories of the Cholas but could not be attributed to any particular king. The coins of Pandyas were square. Those coins were etched with an elephant on one side and the other side remained blank. The inscription on the silver and gold coins during the Pandyas were in Tamil-Brahmi and the copper coins bore the Tamil legends.256 The coins of the Pandyas, which bore the fish symbols, were termed as 'Kodandaraman' and 'Kanchi' Valangum Perumal'.257 Apart from these, 'Ellamthalaiyanam' was seen on coins which had the standing king on one side and the fish on the other. 'Samarakolahalam' and 'Bhuvanekaviram' were found on the cois having a Garuda, 'Konerirayan' on coins having a bull and 'Kaliyugaraman' on coins that depict a pair of feet.258

Religion

The Pandya period (c. 13th century CE) was characterised by several elite forms of Hinduism, a popular bhakti religion and an even more widespread local form of Hinduism. The distinctions between the three were not differentiated. The worship of the gods Vishnu and Shiva was generally supported by the elite and Shiva was generally later supported by the elite.259 The bhakti movement emphasized the mutual intense emotional attachment between the god and the devotee.260

The Pandya country was home to several renowned temples including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.261 As some of the largest employers and landowners of the Pandya country, the temples played an important part in the Tamil economy and society.262 They generally also served as banks, schools, dispensaries, and poorhouses (thus performing valuable social functions). The large walled temple complexes of the Pandya country also contained several administrative offices and bazaars.263

It is known that the early Pandya rulers followed Jainism while at some point they converted to Hinduism. They supported the Bhakti movement from both Vaishnavism and Shaivism of Hinduism.264

Architecture

Further information: Pandyan art and architecture

The early temple architecture phase in Tamil Nadu opens with the rock-cut cave temples.265266

The Tamil country is home to the 'South Indian' or 'Dravidian' style of medieval temple architecture.267

  • Typical temple consists of a hall and a square sanctum (the gabhagrha)
  • The foundation block, or socle, is known as the adhisthana.
  • Walls of the sanctum are generally divided by pilasters.
  • Superstructure: 'kutina' type (stepped stories in pyramidal form with decorative bands/parapets or the hdras)
  • The parapet is composed of miniature shrines (called the kutas and salas) connected by wall elements (the harantaras).
  • On top, a necking that supports a solid dome, or cupola (crowned by a pot and finial)—the sikhara.
  • Gopura: the great entrance buildings268

The major Pandya contributions to Dravidian architecture come after the Pallava (7th–9th centuries) and the Chola periods (9th–12th centuries).269

  • Gopuras are extremely large and elaborately decorated (capped by a barrel vault).270
  • Successively built walls and gopuras.271

Finest Pandyan architectures:

Jambukeswarar Temple, Tiruchirapalli272

The Pandyas are a secondary subject of the Tamil films Aayirathil Oruvan (2010), Ponniyin Selvan: I (2022), Ponniyin Selvan: II (2023), and Yaathisai (2023).

See also

Further reading

  • Balambal, V. (1998). Studies in the History of the Sangam Age. Kalinga Publications. ISBN 978-81-85163-87-1.
  • Carswell, John. 1991. "The Port of Mantai, Sri Lanka." RAI, pp. 197–203.
  • Curtin, Philip D. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26931-5.
  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.
  • Holl, Augustin (2003). Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0407-1.
  • Husaini, A.Q. (1972). History of The Pandya Country.
  • Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
  • Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India (4 ed.).
  • Lindsay, W S (2006). History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-94253-8.
  • Nagasamy, R (1981). Tamil Coins – A study. Institute of Epigraphy, Tamil Nadu State Dept. of Archaeology.
  • Purushottam, Vi. Pi. (1989). Cankakala Mannar Kalanilai Varalaru.
  • Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed. 1996. Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean. Proceedings of the International Seminar Techno-Archaeological Perspectives of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean 4th cent. BC – 15th cent. AD New Delhi, 28 February – 4 March 1994. New Delhi, and Jean-François SALLES, Lyon. First published 1996. Reprinted 1998. Manohar Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi.
  • Reddy, P. Krishna Mohan. 2001. "Maritime Trade of Early South India: New Archaeological Evidences from Motupalli, Andhra Pradesh." East and West Vol. 51 – Nos. 1–2 (June 2001), pp. 143–156.
  • Tripathi, Rama Sankar (1967). History of Ancient India. India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 81-208-0018-4.
  • Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. The Pandyan Kingdom: From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century.
  • N. Subrahmanian (1962). History of Tamilnad (To A. D. 1336). Madurai: Koodal. OCLC 43502446. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016.
  • Venkata Subramanian, T. K. (1988). Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam. Tamil University. p. 55. ISBN 978-81-7090-110-5. Issue 92 of Tamil_p Palkalaik Kal_aka ve?iyi?u
  • Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1992). "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (ed.). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526). Vol. 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. OCLC 31870180.
  • K.K.R. Nair (1987). "Venad: Its Early History". Journal of Kerala Studies. 14 (1). University of Kerala: 1–34. ISSN 0377-0443.
  • Kishori Saran Lal (1950). History of the Khaljis (1290–1320). Allahabad: The Indian Press. OCLC 685167335.
  • Noboru Karashima, ed. (2014). A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
  • Romila Thapar (2003). The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2.
  • Peter Jackson (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
  • Media related to Pandyan Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons

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