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Piapoco language
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Piapoco is a branch of the <a href="/facts/Arawakan_languages/ffGtyPSK">Arawak language</a>, which also includes Achagua and Tariana.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> Piapoco is considered a Northern Arawak language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> There are only about 3,000 Piapoco speakers left today. These people live in the Meta, Vichada, and Guaviare rivers in Colombia<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Piapoco speakers also reside in Venezuela.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> It is an endangered language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <h3>Geography/Background</h3> <p>The Piapocos come from the larger tribe, the <a href="/facts/Piaroa_people/KUUevK50">Piaroa</a>, who are indigenous to the Amazon rain forest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The Piapoco people originally lived in the midsection of Rio Guaviare, later moving in the 18th century to avoid settlers, missionaries, and others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="bilingualism">Bilingualism</h2> <p>The word Piapoco is a Spanish nickname in reference to the toucan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Most Piapoco speakers also speak Spanish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> Speakers who have had less contact with Spanish speakers more often pronounce the phoneme "s" as a <a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_fricative/hmQpb6pI">voiceless interdental fricative</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Younger speakers of the Piapoco language tend to eliminate the "h" more than older speakers due to their contact with the Spanish language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>When a large portion of people come in contact with another language and are competent in it, their language gradually becomes more like the other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> This allows for a gradual convergence, where grammar and semantics of one language begin to replicate the other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="phonology">Phonology</h2> <h3>Consonants</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2"></th><th><a href="/facts/Labial_consonant/bv4MqTMf">Labial</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Dental_consonant/Yraaz9Nm">Dental</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">Palatal</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Glottal_consonant/rMdEdLxH">Glottal</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nasal_consonant/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_nasal/1pd7NK2x">m</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_nasal/0CEs8314">n</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Stop_consonant/okC9pztc">Stop</a></th><th>voiceless</th><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive/w4M9Igp6">p</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_plosive/dDppVb6e">k</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiced</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_plosive/6ReC9arR">b</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_plosive/A6hNvmCp">d</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Affricate/Fn2y7FIA">Affricate</a></th><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate/YfPyNGjE">ts</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fricative/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative/WLKtEYDe">s̪</a> ~ <a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_fricative/hmQpb6pI">θ</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_glottal_fricative/lfRB7CPW">h</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Trill_consonant/GKS3ga4q">Trill</a></th><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Approximant/SXrlw7zY">Approximant</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_labial%25E2%2580%2593velar_approximant/HLDqbrvr">w</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_approximant/v0NVCbUh">j</a></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>/s̪/ can be pronounced as [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_fricative/hmQpb6pI">θ</a>] among speakers who have had less contact with Spanish speakers.</li> <li>/k/ can be palatalized as [<a href="/facts/Palatalization_(phonetics)/LXAIp4TB">kʲ</a>] when after /i/, before another vowel.</li> <li>/ts/ can be pronounced as [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate/14FYMJvN">tʃ</a>] in free variation among different speakers.</li> <li>/w/ is pronounced as [<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_fricative/2ljHM92m">β</a>] when preceding front vowels.</li></ul> <h3>Vowels</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">High</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Mid_vowel/uzjGLRhf">Low</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/e9YNLF97">e</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Open_front_unrounded_vowel/s80pvmYh">a</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Vowels can be nasalized [ã] when occurring before nasal consonants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="grammar">Grammar</h2> <p>A Piapoco-Spanish dictionary containing 2,500 words was written by Deloris Klumpp, in which botanical identification of plants were captured, although not all.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The Piapoco language follows the following grammatical rules: plural suffix -nai used for animates only, derivational suffixes masculine -iri, feminine -tua, suffix -mi 'late, defunct,' nominalizing -si, declarative mood marker -ka.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Piapoco is unique in that it seems to be a nominative-accusative language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> There are eighteen segmental phonemes, fourteen consonant and four vowels in the Piapoco language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Klumpp, Deloris A. (2019). Hollenbach, Barbara E. (ed.). <a href="https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/80649"><i>A Grammar of Piapoco</i></a>. SIL eBook 71. SIL International.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Seifart, F (2012). "Causative Marking in Resígaro (Arawakan): A Descriptive and Comparative Perspective". International Journal of American Linguistics. 78 (3): 369–384. doi:10.1086/665917. S2CID 144865690. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1 January 1998). "Review of Vocabulario Piapoco-Español, ; Bosquejo del Macuna: Aspectos de la cultura material de los macunas--Fonología; Gramática, , , ; Gramática Pedagógica del Cuiba-Wámonae: Lengua indígena de la familia lingüística guahiba de los llanos orientales". International Journal of American Linguistics. 64 (2): 168–173. doi:10.1086/466355. JSTOR 1265983. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Klumpp, James; Burquest, Donald A. (1 January 1983). "Relative Clauses in Piapoco". International Journal of American Linguistics. 49 (4): 388–399. doi:10.1086/465801. JSTOR 1265211. S2CID 144582996. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Did you know Piapoco is threatened?". Endangered Languages. Archived from the original on 2017-10-08. Retrieved 2017-04-30. <a href="http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2955" target="_blank">http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2955</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Did you know Piapoco is threatened?". Endangered Languages. Archived from the original on 2017-10-08. Retrieved 2017-04-30. <a href="http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2955" target="_blank">http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2955</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Piapoco Indians. (n.d.). Retrieved March 09, 2017, from http://www.indian-cultures.com/cultures/piapoco-indians/ Archived 2019-02-26 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.indian-cultures.com/cultures/piapoco-indians/" target="_blank">http://www.indian-cultures.com/cultures/piapoco-indians/</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Flowers, N. M. (n.d.). Piapoco. Retrieved March 09, 2017, from http://www.everyculture.com/South-America/Piapoco.html <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Klumpp, James; Burquest, Donald A. (1 January 1983). "Relative Clauses in Piapoco". International Journal of American Linguistics. 49 (4): 388–399. doi:10.1086/465801. JSTOR 1265211. S2CID 144582996. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Flowers, N. M. (n.d.). Piapoco. Retrieved March 09, 2017, from http://www.everyculture.com/South-America/Piapoco.html <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Klumpp, D. (1990). Piapoco Grammar. 1-136. Retrieved March 9, 2017, from https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810 Archived 2017-11-15 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810" target="_blank">https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Klumpp, D. (1990). Piapoco Grammar. 1-136. Retrieved March 9, 2017, from https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810 Archived 2017-11-15 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810" target="_blank">https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1 January 2003). "Mechanisms of Change in Areal Diffusion: New Morphology and Language Contact". Journal of Linguistics. 39 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1017/s0022226702001937. JSTOR 4176787. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1 January 2003). "Mechanisms of Change in Areal Diffusion: New Morphology and Language Contact". Journal of Linguistics. 39 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1017/s0022226702001937. JSTOR 4176787. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Klumpp, Deloris A.; Hollenbach, Barbara E. (2019). A Grammar of Piapoco. SIL International. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1 January 1998). "Review of Vocabulario Piapoco-Español, ; Bosquejo del Macuna: Aspectos de la cultura material de los macunas--Fonología; Gramática, , , ; Gramática Pedagógica del Cuiba-Wámonae: Lengua indígena de la familia lingüística guahiba de los llanos orientales". International Journal of American Linguistics. 64 (2): 168–173. doi:10.1086/466355. JSTOR 1265983. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1 January 1998). "Review of Vocabulario Piapoco-Español, ; Bosquejo del Macuna: Aspectos de la cultura material de los macunas--Fonología; Gramática, , , ; Gramática Pedagógica del Cuiba-Wámonae: Lengua indígena de la familia lingüística guahiba de los llanos orientales". International Journal of American Linguistics. 64 (2): 168–173. doi:10.1086/466355. JSTOR 1265983. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1 January 1998). "Review of Vocabulario Piapoco-Español, ; Bosquejo del Macuna: Aspectos de la cultura material de los macunas--Fonología; Gramática, , , ; Gramática Pedagógica del Cuiba-Wámonae: Lengua indígena de la familia lingüística guahiba de los llanos orientales". International Journal of American Linguistics. 64 (2): 168–173. doi:10.1086/466355. JSTOR 1265983. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Klumpp, D. (1990). Piapoco Grammar. 1-136. Retrieved March 9, 2017, from https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810 Archived 2017-11-15 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810" target="_blank">https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18810</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>