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Geʽez
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<h2 id="phonology">Phonology</h2> <h3>Vowels</h3> Geʽez vowels<table><tbody><tr><th> </th><th><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a> </th><th><a href="/facts/Central_vowel/IFSaKUe9">Central</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">Close</a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a>/ <i>i</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Close_central_unrounded_vowel/YdtMNGWw">ɨ</a>/ <i>ə</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a>/ <i>u</i></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Mid_vowel/uzjGLRhf">Mid</a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/e9YNLF97">e</a>/ <i>e</i></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel/VwS9cKWJ">o</a>/ <i>o</i></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Near-open_vowel/B2lug7oV">Near-open</a></th><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel/YFxhvcEV">æ</a> ~ <a href="/facts/Near-open_central_vowel/GUR9Nk56">ɐ</a>/<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> <i>a</i></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Open_vowel/roS0Y7lA">Open</a></th><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Open_front_unrounded_vowel/s80pvmYh">a</a> ~ <a href="/facts/Open_back_unrounded_vowel/znr1wT5C">ɑ</a>/<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> <i>ā</i></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Historically, /ɨ/ has a basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short <i>*i</i> and <i>*u</i>, /æ ~ ɐ/ with short <i>*a</i>, the vowels /i, u, a/ with Proto-Semitic long <i>*ī, *ū, *ā</i> respectively, and /e, o/ with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs <i>*ay</i> and <i>*aw</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between /o/ and /aw/, less so between /e/ and /aj/, e.g. ተሎኩ <i>taloku</i> ~ ተለውኩ <i>talawku</i> ("I followed").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>In the transcription employed by the <a href="/facts/Encyclopaedia_Aethiopica/YF1aBXVh">Encyclopaedia Aethiopica</a>, which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a. </p> <h3>Consonants</h3> <h4>Transliteration</h4> <p>Geʽez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values): </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>translit.</th><td><i>h</i></td><td><i>l</i></td><td><i>ḥ</i></td><td><i>m</i></td><td><i>ś</i></td><td><i>r</i></td><td><i>s</i></td><td><i>q</i></td><td><i>b</i></td><td><i>t</i></td><td><i>ḫ</i></td><td><i>n</i></td><td><i>ʼ</i></td></tr><tr><th>Geʽez</th><td>ሀ</td><td>ለ</td><td>ሐ</td><td>መ</td><td>ሠ</td><td>ረ</td><td>ሰ</td><td>ቀ</td><td>በ</td><td>ተ</td><td>ኀ</td><td>ነ</td><td>አ</td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><th>translit.</th><td><i>k</i></td><td><i>w</i></td><td><i>ʽ</i></td><td><i>z</i></td><td><i>y</i></td><td><i>d</i></td><td><i>g</i></td><td><i>ṭ</i></td><td><i>p̣</i></td><td><i>ṣ</i></td><td><i>ḍ</i></td><td><i>f</i></td><td><i>p</i></td></tr><tr><th>Geʽez</th><td>ከ</td><td>ወ</td><td>ዐ</td><td>ዘ</td><td>የ</td><td>ደ</td><td>ገ</td><td>ጠ</td><td>ጰ</td><td>ጸ</td><td>ፀ</td><td>ፈ</td><td>ፐ</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Because Geʽez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to the graphemes <i>ś</i> (Geʽez ሠ) and <i>ḍ</i> (Geʽez ፀ) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geʽez."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <p>A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated <i>ḫ</i>. Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as <i>ḥ</i> in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>The chart below lists /ɬ/ and /t͡ɬʼ/ as possible values for <i>ś</i> (ሠ) and <i>ḍ</i> (ፀ) respectively. It also lists /χ/ as a possible value for <i>ḫ</i> (ኀ). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed <a href="/facts/Proto-Semitic/XaqWTuIH">Proto-Semitic</a> consonants that they are descended from. </p> <h4>Phonemes of Geʽez</h4> <p>The following table presents the <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonants</a> of the Geʽez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a <a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">phoneme</a> is given in <a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a> transcription, followed by its representation in the Geʽez script and scholarly transliteration. </p> Geʽez consonants<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Labial_consonant/bv4MqTMf">Labial</a></th><th colspan="3"><a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">Palatal</a></th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Pharyngeal_consonant/ypfYew9Y">Pharyngeal</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Glottal_consonant/rMdEdLxH">Glottal</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Central_consonant/YLATXvJW">central</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Lateral_consonant/Mcyc1or8">lateral</a></th><th>plain</th><th><a href="/facts/Labialization/gxgAWAQI">labialized</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nasal_consonant/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_nasal/1pd7NK2x">m</a>/ መ <i>m</i></td><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_nasal/0CEs8314">n</a>/ ነ <i>n</i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Plosive/okC9pztc">Stop</a>/<a href="/facts/Affricate/Fn2y7FIA">Affricate</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiceless</a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive/w4M9Igp6">p</a>/ ፐ <i>p</i></td><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a>/ ተ <i>t</i></td><td></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_plosive/dDppVb6e">k</a>/ ከ <i>k</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_plosive/dDppVb6e">k</a><a href="/facts/Labialization/gxgAWAQI">ʷ</a>/ ኰ <i>kʷ</i></td><td></td><td rowspan="3">/<a href="/facts/Glottal_stop/Xfqy2ArP">ʔ</a>/ አ <i>ʼ</i></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiced</a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_plosive/6ReC9arR">b</a>/ በ <i>b</i></td><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_plosive/A6hNvmCp">d</a>/ ደ <i>d</i></td><td></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_plosive/f6udTvfQ">g</a>/ ገ <i>g</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_plosive/f6udTvfQ">g</a><a href="/facts/Labialization/gxgAWAQI">ʷ</a>/ ጐ <i>gʷ</i></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Emphatic_consonant/xCSeW8Kf">emphatic</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Bilabial_ejective_stop/xrN47eFU">pʼ</a>/ ጰ <i>p̣</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Alveolar_ejective_stop/ea7ahEWx">t’</a>/ ጠ <i>ṭ</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Alveolar_ejective_affricate/cYxdrDPc">t͡sʼ</a>/ ጸ <i>ṣ</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate/f6DqronT">t͡ɬʼ</a>/ ፀ <i>ḍ</i></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Velar_ejective_stop/lNW5fHwr">k’</a>/ ቀ <i>q</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Velar_ejective_stop/lNW5fHwr">k</a><a href="/facts/Labialization/gxgAWAQI">ʷ</a><a href="/facts/Velar_ejective_stop/lNW5fHwr">’</a>/ ቈ <i>qʷ</i></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fricative/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiceless</a></th><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative/dUkN8guL">f</a>/ ፈ <i>f</i></td><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">s</a>/ ሰ <i>s</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative/Vzem3juJ">ɬ</a>/ ሠ <i>ś</i></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">x</a>/ ኀ <i>ḫ</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">x</a><a href="/facts/Labialization/gxgAWAQI">ʷ</a>/ ኈ <i>ḫʷ</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative/Y2qSAoED">ħ</a>/ ሐ <i>ḥ</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiceless_glottal_fricative/lfRB7CPW">h</a>/ ሀ <i>h</i></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiced</a></th><td></td><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_fricative/TtHwyzp6">z</a>/ ዘ <i>z</i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative/vv0pypE7">ʕ</a>/ ዐ <i>ʽ</i></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Approximant/SXrlw7zY">Approximant</a></th><td></td><td colspan="2">/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a>/ ረ <i>r</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a>/ ለ <i>l</i></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_approximant/v0NVCbUh">j</a>/ የ <i>y</i></td><td></td><td>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_labial%25E2%2580%2593velar_approximant/HLDqbrvr">w</a>/ ወ <i>w</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Geʽez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic</h4> <p>Geʽez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and <a href="/facts/Ejective_consonant/TDKaffPV">ejective</a> (or <a href="/facts/Emphatic_consonant/xCSeW8Kf">emphatic</a>) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geʽez has been generalized to include emphatic <i>p̣</i> /pʼ/. Geʽez has phonologized <a href="/facts/Labialized_velar_consonant/VVUIqtF0">labiovelars</a>, descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geʽez ś ሠ Sawt (in Amharic, also called <i>śe-nigūś</i>, i.e. the <i>se</i> letter used for spelling the word <i>nigūś</i> "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic <a href="/facts/Voiceless_lateral_fricative/Vzem3juJ">voiceless lateral fricative</a> [ɬ]. Like Arabic, Geʽez merged Proto-Semitic <a href="/facts/Shin_(letter)/D8AeI5cw">š</a> and <a href="/facts/Samekh/gDVKbXbl">s</a> in ሰ (also called <i>se-isat</i>: the <i>se</i> letter used for spelling the word <i>isāt</i> "fire"). Apart from this, Geʽez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and <a href="/facts/Ghayn/D3Vl9MGT">ghayn</a>. </p> <h3>Stress</h3> <p>There is no evidence within the script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> may be broadly summarized as follows: </p> <ul><li>primary stress only falls on the ultima (the last syllable) or the penult (the second-to-last syllable)</li> <li>in finite verbs (including the imperative), stress falls on the penult: ቀተለት <i>qatálat</i> ("she killed"), ንግር <i>nə́gər</i> ("speak!", masculine singular), with the important exception of the 2nd-person feminine plural suffix ክን <i>-kə́n</i></li> <li>in nouns and adjectives (in citation form), and most adverbs, stress falls on the ultima: ንጉሥ <i>nəgúś</i> ("king"), ሀገር <i>hagár</i> ("city"), ግዕዝ <i>Gə́ʽz</i> ("Geʽez"), ጠቢብ <i>ṭabíb</i> ("wise"), ህየ <i>həyyá</i> ("there"); an exception among adverbs is ዝየ <i>zə́ya</i> ("here")</li> <li>the suffix <i>-a</i>, marking the construct state or the accusative case (or both), is not stressed: ንጉሠ <i>nəgúśa</i>, ሀገረ <i>hagára</i>, ግዕዘ <i>Gə́ʽza</i>, ጠቢበ <i>ṭabíba</i></li> <li>cardinal numbers are stressed on the ultima, even in the accusative, e.g. ሠለስቱ <i>śalastú</i> accusative ሠለስተ <i>śalastá</i> ("three")</li> <li>pronouns have rather unpredictable stress, so stress is learned for each form</li> <li><a href="/facts/Clitic/4A00CTek">enclitic</a> particles (such as ሰ <i>-(ə)ssá</i>) are stressed</li> <li>various grammatical words (short prepositions, conjunctions) and short nouns in the construct state are unstressed</li></ul> <p>As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. ንግር <i>nəgə́r</i>, "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on the third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. በረከተ <i>bárakata</i>). </p><p>Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as <i>yənaggərā́</i> ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix <i>-(h)ā́</i> "her") vs. <i>yənaggə́rā</i> ("they speak", feminine plural), both written ይነግራ.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="morphology">Morphology</h2> <h3>Nouns</h3> <p>Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, the latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix ት <i>-t</i>, e.g. እኅት <i>ʼəxt</i> ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p><p>There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing ኣት <i>-āt</i> to a word (regardless of gender, but often ኣን <i>-ān</i> if it is a male human noun), or by using an <a href="/facts/Internal_plural/581CnIvF">internal plural</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Plural using suffix: ዓመት <i>ʿāmat</i> ("year") plural ዓመታት <i>ʿāmatāt</i>, ገዳም <i>gadām</i> ("wilderness, uninhabited area") plural ገዳማት <i>gadāmāt</i>, ሊቅ <i>liq</i> ("elder, chief") plural ሊቃን <i>liqān</i>, ጳጳስ <i>p̣āp̣p̣ās</i> ("(arch)bishop") plural ጳጳሳት <i>p̣āp̣p̣āsāt</i>.</li> <li>Internal plural: ቤት <i>bet</i> ("house") plural አብያት <i>ʾabyāt</i>, ቅርንብ <i>qərnəb</i> ("eyelid") plural ቀራንብት <i>qarānəbt</i>.</li></ul> <p>Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final <i>-a</i>. As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and <a href="/facts/Construct_state/duxG0U0K">construct</a> (marked with <i>-a</i> as well). </p> Declension of ሊቅ <i>liq</i> ("elder, chief")<table><tbody><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">Singular</th><th colspan="2">Plural</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Absolutestate</th><th>Constructstate</th><th>Absolutestate</th><th>Constructstate</th></tr><tr><th>Nominative</th><td>ሊቅ <i>liq</i></td><td>ሊቀ <i>liqa</i></td><td>ሊቃን <i>liqān</i></td><td>ሊቃነ <i>liqāna</i></td></tr><tr><th>Accusative</th><td>ሊቀ <i>liqa</i></td><td>ሊቀ <i>liqa</i></td><td>ሊቃነ <i>liqāna</i></td><td>ሊቃነ <i>liqāna</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As in <a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Classical/Standard Arabic</a>, singular and plural nouns often take the same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem. </p><p>There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by የ <i>-ya</i> ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form is ሊቅየ <i>liqə́ya</i> (i.e. the accusative is <i>not</i> *ሊቀየ <i>*liqáya</i>), but with ከ <i>-ka</i> ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative ሊቅከ <i>liqə́ka</i> and accusative ሊቀከ <i>liqáka</i>, and similarly with <i>-hu</i> ("his") between nominative ሊቁ <i>liqú</i> (< <i>*liq-ə-hu</i>) and accusative ሊቆ <i>liqó</i> (< <i>*liqa-hu</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <h4>Internal plural</h4> <p>Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of the following patterns. </p> Patterns of internal plural for triconsonantal nouns<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> (C=Consonant, V=Vowel)<table><tbody><tr><th>Pattern</th><th>Singular</th><th>Meaning</th><th>Plural</th></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">ʾaCCāC</td><td>ልብስ <i>ləbs</i></td><td>'garment'</td><td>አልባስ <i>ʾalbās</i></td></tr><tr><td>ፈረስ <i>faras</i></td><td>'horse'</td><td>አፍራስ <i>ʾafrās</i></td></tr><tr><td>ቤት <i>bet</i></td><td>'house'</td><td>አብያት <i>ʾabyāt</i></td></tr><tr><td>ጾም <i>ṣom</i></td><td>'fast'</td><td>አጽዋም <i>ʾaṣwām</i></td></tr><tr><td>ስም <i>səm</i></td><td>'name'</td><td>አስማት <i>ʾasmāt</i></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">ʾaCCuC</td><td>ሀገር <i>hagar</i></td><td>'country'</td><td>አህጉር <i>ʾahgur</i></td></tr><tr><td>አድግ <i>ʾadg</i></td><td>'ass'</td><td>አእዱግ <i>ʾaʾdug</i></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">ʾaCCəC(t)</td><td>በትር <i>batr</i></td><td>'rod'</td><td>አብትር <i>ʾabtər</i></td></tr><tr><td>ርእስ <i>rə's</i></td><td>'head'</td><td>አርእስት <i>ʾarʾəst</i></td></tr><tr><td>ገብር <i>gabr</i></td><td>'servant, slave'</td><td>አግብርት <i>ʾagbərt</i></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">ʾaCāCəC(t)</td><td>በግዕ <i>bagʽ</i></td><td>'sheep'</td><td>አባግዕ <i>’abāgəʽ</i></td></tr><tr><td>ጋንን <i>gānən</i></td><td>'devil'</td><td>አጋንንት <i>’agānənt</i></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">CVCaC</td><td>እዝን <i>’əzn</i></td><td>'ear'</td><td>እዘን <i>’əzan</i></td></tr><tr><td>እግር <i>’əgr</i></td><td>'foot'</td><td>እገር <i>’əgar</i></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">CVCaw</td><td>እድ <i>’əd</i></td><td>'hand'</td><td>እደው <i>’ədaw</i></td></tr><tr><td>አብ <i>’ab</i></td><td>'father'</td><td>አበው <i>’abaw</i></td></tr><tr><td>እኍ/እኅው <i>’əḫʷ/’əḫəw</i></td><td>'brother'</td><td>አኀው <i>’aḫaw</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely /i e o u/).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p> Patterns of internal plural for quadriconsonantal nouns<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> (C=Consonant, V=Vowel)<table><tbody><tr><th>Pattern</th><th>Meaning</th><th>Singular</th><th>Plural</th></tr><tr><td rowspan="9">CaCāCəC(t)</td><td>'virgin'</td><td>ድንግል <i>dəngəl</i></td><td>ደናግል <i>danāgəl</i></td></tr><tr><td>'prince'</td><td>መስፍን <i>masfən</i></td><td>መሳፍንት <i>masāfənt</i></td></tr><tr><td>'star'</td><td>ኮከብ <i>kokab</i></td><td>ከዋክብት <i>kawākəbt</i></td></tr><tr><td>'window'</td><td>መስኮት <i>maskot</i></td><td>መሳኩት <i>masākut < masākəwt</i></td></tr><tr><td>'chicken'</td><td>ዶርሆ <i>dorho</i></td><td>ደራውህ <i>darāwəh</i></td></tr><tr><td>'night'</td><td>ሌሊት <i>lelit</i></td><td>ለያልይ <i>layāləy</i></td></tr><tr><td>'earth'</td><td>ብሔር <i>bəḥer</i></td><td>በሓውርት <i>baḥāwərt</i></td></tr><tr><td>'river'</td><td>ውሒዝ <i>wəḥiz</i></td><td>ወሓይዝት <i>waḥāyəzt</i></td></tr><tr><td>'priest'</td><td>ቀሲስ <i>qasis</i></td><td>ቀሳውስት <i>qasāwəst</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Pronominal morphology</h3> <p>In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular. </p> Personal independent pronouns[31]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th colspan="3"></th><th>Singular</th><th>Plural</th></tr><tr><th colspan="3">1st person</th><td>አነ <i>ʼána</i></td><td>ንሕነ <i>nə́ḥna</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">2nd person</th><th colspan="2">masculine</th><td>አንተ <i>ʼánta</i></td><td>አንትሙ <i>ʼantə́mu</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">feminine</th><td>አንቲ <i>ʼánti</i></td><td>አንትን <i>ʼantə́n</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="4">3rd person</th><th rowspan="2">masculine</th><th>nominative</th><td>ውእቱ <i>wəʼə́tu</i></td><td rowspan="2">ውእቶሙ <i>wəʼətómu</i>, እሙንቱ <i>ʼəmuntú</i></td></tr><tr><th>accusative</th><td>ውእተ <i>wəʼə́ta</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">feminine</th><th>nominative</th><td>ይእቲ <i>yəʼə́ti</i></td><td rowspan="2">ውእቶን <i>wəʼətón</i>, እማንቱ <i>ʼəmāntú</i></td></tr><tr><th>accusative</th><td>ይእተ <i>yə’ə́ta</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct <i>-a</i> is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added <i>-i-</i>, as in <i>-i-hu</i>, "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given the base በ /b/ in the script. </p> Suffix pronouns[34]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2" colspan="3"></th><th colspan="2">Default</th><th colspan="2">With consonant-final singular nouns</th><th rowspan="2">With consonant-final plural nouns</th></tr><tr><th>noun/prep.</th><th>verb</th><th>nominative</th><th>accusative</th></tr><tr><th rowspan="5">Singular</th><th colspan="2">1st person</th><td>-የ <i>-ya</i></td><td>-ኒ <i>-ni</i></td><td colspan="2">-ብየ <i>-ə́ya</i></td><td>-ብየ <i>-ə́ya</i>, -ቢየ <i>-íya</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">2nd person</th><th>masculine</th><td colspan="2">-ከ <i>-ka</i></td><td>-ብከ <i>-ə́ka</i></td><td>-በከ <i>-áka</i></td><td>-ቢከ <i>-íka</i></td></tr><tr><th>feminine</th><td colspan="2">-ኪ <i>-ki</i></td><td>-ብኪ <i>-ə́ki</i></td><td>-በኪ <i>-áki</i></td><td>-ቢኪ <i>-íki</i>, -ብኪ <i>-ə́ki</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">3rd person</th><th>masculine</th><td colspan="2">ሁ <i>-hú</i></td><td>-ቡ <i>-ú</i></td><td>-ቦ <i>-ó</i></td><td>-ቢሁ <i>-ihú</i></td></tr><tr><th>feminine</th><td colspan="2">-ሃ <i>-hā́</i></td><td colspan="2">-ባ <i>-ā́</i></td><td>-ቢሃ <i>-ihā́</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="5">Plural</th><th colspan="2">1st person</th><td colspan="2">-ነ <i>-na</i></td><td>-ብነ <i>-ə́na</i></td><td>-በነ <i>-ána</i></td><td>-ቢነ <i>-ína</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">2nd person</th><th>masculine</th><td colspan="2">-ክሙ <i>-kə́mu</i></td><td>-ብክሙ <i>-əkə́mu</i></td><td>-በክሙ <i>-akə́mu</i></td><td>-ቢክሙ <i>-ikə́mu</i></td></tr><tr><th>feminine</th><td colspan="2">-ክን <i>-kə́n</i></td><td>-ብክን <i>-əkə́n</i></td><td>-በክን <i>-akə́n</i></td><td>-ቢክን <i>-ikə́n</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">3rd person</th><th>masculine</th><td colspan="2">-ሆሙ <i>-hómu</i></td><td colspan="2">-ቦሙ <i>-ómu</i></td><td>-ቢሆሙ <i>-ihómu</i></td></tr><tr><th>feminine</th><td colspan="2">-ሆን <i>-hón</i></td><td colspan="2">-ቦን <i>-ón</i></td><td>-ቢሆን <i>-ihón</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Verb conjugation</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Person</th><th rowspan="2">Perfect<i>qatal-nn</i></th><th colspan="2">Imperfect</th></tr><tr><th>Indicative<i>-qattəl</i></th><th>Jussive<i>-qtəl</i></th></tr><tr><th rowspan="2" colspan="2">1st person</th><th>singular</th><td><i>qatal-ku</i></td><td><i>ʾə-qattəl</i></td><td><i>ʾə-qtəl</i></td></tr><tr><th>plural</th><td><i>qatal-na</i></td><td><i>nə-qattəl</i></td><td><i>nə-qtəl</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="4">2ndperson</th><th rowspan="2">masculine</th><th>singular</th><td><i>qatal-ka</i></td><td><i>tə-qattəl</i></td><td><i>tə-qtəl</i></td></tr><tr><th>plural</th><td><i>qatal-kəmmu</i></td><td><i>tə-qattəl-u</i></td><td><i>tə-qtəl-u</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">feminine</th><th>singular</th><td><i>qatal-ki</i></td><td><i>tə-qattəl-i</i></td><td><i>tə-qtəl-i</i></td></tr><tr><th>plural</th><td><i>qatal-kən</i></td><td><i>tə-qattəl-ā</i></td><td><i>tə-qtəl-ā</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="4">3rdperson</th><th rowspan="2">masculine</th><th>singular</th><td><i>qatal-a</i></td><td><i>yə-qattəl</i></td><td><i>yə-qtəl</i></td></tr><tr><th>plural</th><td><i>qatal-u</i></td><td><i>yə-qattəl-u</i></td><td><i>yə-qtəl-u</i></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">feminine</th><th>singular</th><td><i>qatal-at</i></td><td><i>tə-qattəl</i></td><td><i>tə-qtəl</i></td></tr><tr><th>plural</th><td><i>qatal-ā</i></td><td><i>yə-qattəl-ā</i></td><td><i>yə-qtəl-ā</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="syntax">Syntax</h2> <h3>Noun phrases</h3> <p>Noun phrases have the following overall order: </p> (demonstratives) noun (adjective)-(relative clause) <p>በዛ</p><p>ba-zā</p><p>in-this:F</p><p>ሀገር</p><p>hagar</p><p>city</p><p>በዛ ሀገር</p><p>ba-zā hagar</p><p>in-this:F city</p><p>in this city</p> <p>ንጉሥ</p><p>nəguś</p><p>king</p><p>ክቡር</p><p>kəbur</p><p>glorious</p><p>ንጉሥ ክቡር</p><p>nəguś kəbur</p><p>king glorious</p><p>a/the glorious king</p> <p>Adjectives and determiners agree with the noun in gender and number: </p> <p>ዛቲ</p><p>zāti</p><p>this:FEM</p><p>ንግሥት</p><p>nəgəśt</p><p>queen</p><p>ክብርት</p><p>kəbərt</p><p>glorious:FEM</p><p>ዛቲ ንግሥት ክብርት</p><p>zāti nəgəśt kəbərt</p><p>this:FEM queen glorious:FEM</p><p>this glorious queen</p> <p>እሉ</p><p>ʼəllu</p><p>these:M.PL</p><p>ነገሥት</p><p>nagaśt</p><p>kings</p><p>ክቡራን</p><p>kəburān</p><p>glorious:PL</p><p>እሉ ነገሥት ክቡራን</p><p>ʼəllu nagaśt kəburān</p><p>these:M.PL kings glorious:PL</p><p>these glorious kings</p> <p>Relative clauses are introduced by a pronoun which agrees in gender and number with the preceding noun: </p> <p>ብእሲ</p><p>bəʾsi</p><p>man</p><p>ዘቀተልዎ</p><p>za=qatal-əww-o</p><p>which:MASC=kill-3.M.PL-3.M.SG</p><p>ለወልዱ</p><p>la=wald-u</p><p>to=son=3.M.SG</p><p>ብእሲ ዘቀተልዎ ለወልዱ</p><p>bəʾsi za=qatal-əww-o la=wald-u</p><p>man which:MASC=kill-3.M.PL-3.M.SG to=son=3.M.SG</p><p>the man whose son they killed</p> <p>As in many Semitic languages, possession by a noun phrase is shown through the <a href="/facts/Construct_state/duxG0U0K">construct state</a>. In Geʽez, this is formed by suffixing the construct suffix <i>-a</i> to the possessed noun, which is followed by the possessor, as in the following examples:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <p>ወልደ</p><p>wald-a</p><p>son-construct</p><p>ንጉሥ</p><p>nəguś</p><p>king</p><p>ወልደ ንጉሥ</p><p>wald-a nəguś</p><p>son-construct king</p><p>the son of the king</p> <p>ስመ</p><p>səm-a</p><p>name-construct</p><p>መልአክ</p><p>malʼak</p><p>angel</p><p>ስመ መልአክ</p><p>səm-a malʼak</p><p>name-construct angel</p><p>the name of the angel</p> <p>Another common way of indicating possession by a noun phrase combines the pronominal suffix on a noun with the possessor preceded by the preposition /la=/ 'to, for':<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <p>ስሙ</p><p>səm-u</p><p>name-3SG</p><p>ለንጉሥ</p><p>la=nəguś</p><p>to=king</p><p>ስሙ ለንጉሥ</p><p>səm-u la=nəguś</p><p>name-3SG to=king</p><p>'the king's name; the name of the king'</p> <p>Lambdin<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> notes that in comparison to the construct state, this kind of possession is only possible when the possessor is definite and specific. Lambdin also notes that the construct state is the unmarked form of possession in Geʽez. </p> <h3>Prepositional phrases</h3> <p>Geʽez is a prepositional language, as in the following example:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <p>ውስተ</p><p>wəsta</p><p>to</p><p>ሀገር</p><p>hagar</p><p>city</p><p>ውስተ ሀገር</p><p>wəsta hagar</p><p>to city</p><p>to the city</p> <p>There are three special prepositions, /ba=/ 'in, with', /la=/ 'to, for', /ʼəm=/ 'from', which always appear as clitics, as in the following examples: </p> <p>እምሀገር</p><p>ʼəm=hagar</p><p>from=city</p><p>እምሀገር</p><p>ʼəm=hagar</p><p>from=city</p><p>from the city</p> <p>በሀገር</p><p>ba=hagar</p><p>in=city</p><p>በሀገር</p><p>ba=hagar</p><p>in=city</p><p>in the city</p> <p>እምዲበ</p><p>’əm=diba</p><p>from=on</p><p>ደብር</p><p>dabr</p><p>mountain</p><p>እምዲበ ደብር</p><p>’əm=diba dabr</p><p>from=on mountain</p><p>down from the mountain</p> <p>በዝ</p><p>ba=zə</p><p>in=this</p><p>ቤት</p><p>bet</p><p>house</p><p>በዝ ቤት</p><p>ba=zə bet</p><p>in=this house</p><p>in this house</p> <p>These proclitic prepositions in Geʽez are similar to the <a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew inseparable prepositions</a>. </p> <h3>Sentences</h3> <p>The normal word order for declarative sentences is VSO. Objects of verbs show <a href="/facts/Accusative_case/HA1Q81qd">accusative case</a> marked with the suffix /-a/: </p> <p>ተከለ</p><p>takal-a</p><p>plant-3.M.SG</p><p>ብእሲ</p><p>bəʾsi</p><p>man</p><p>ዕፀ</p><p>ʿəḍ-a</p><p>tree-ACC</p><p>ተከለ ብእሲ ዕፀ</p><p>takal-a bəʾsi ʿəḍ-a</p><p>plant-3.M.SG man tree-ACC</p><p>The man planted a tree</p> <p>Questions with a wh-word ('who', 'what', etc.) show the question word at the beginning of the sentence: </p> <p>አየ</p><p>ʾayy-a</p><p>which-ACC</p><p>ሀገረ</p><p>hagar-a</p><p>city-ACC</p><p>ሐነጹ</p><p>ḥanaṣ-u</p><p>build-3PL</p><p>አየ ሀገረ ሐነጹ</p><p>ʾayy-a hagar-a ḥanaṣ-u</p><p>which-ACC city-ACC build-3PL</p><p>Which city did they build?</p> <h3>Negation</h3> <p>The common way of negation is the prefix ኢ <i>ʾi-</i> which descends from <i>ʾəy-</i> (which is attested in Axum inscriptions), from earlier *<i>ʾay</i>, from <a href="/facts/Proto-Semitic/XaqWTuIH">Proto-Semitic</a> <i>*ʾal</i> by <a href="/facts/Palatalization_(sound_change)/vheTQbuP">palatalization</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> It is prefixed to verbs as follows: </p> <p>ንሕነ</p><p>nəḥna</p><p>we</p><p>ኢንክል</p><p>ʾi-nəkl</p><p>(we) cannot</p><p>ሐዊረ</p><p>ḥawira</p><p>go</p><p>ንሕነ ኢንክል ሐዊረ</p><p>nəḥna ʾi-nəkl ḥawira</p><p>we {(we) cannot} go</p><p>we cannot go</p> <h2 id="writing-system">Writing system</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Ge%25CA%25BDez_script/K4RRPwCl">Geʽez script</a></p> <p>Geʽez is written with Ethiopic or the Geʽez <a href="/facts/Abugida/FWhLePru">abugida</a>, a script that was originally developed specifically for this language. In languages that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called <i><i>Fidäl</i></i>, which means script or alphabet. </p><p>Geʽez is read from left to right. </p><p>The Geʽez script has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is for Amharic in <a href="/facts/Ethiopia/LVujNp5v">Ethiopia</a> and Tigrinya in <a href="/facts/Eritrea/tuhgQTdR">Eritrea</a> and Ethiopia. It is also used for <a href="/facts/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language/osY5HTea">Sebatbeit</a>, <a href="/facts/Me%25CA%25BCen_language/XcaNUk0w">Meʼen</a>, Agew, and most other languages of Ethiopia. In Eritrea it is used for Tigre, and it is often used for <a href="/facts/Bilen_language/LC1kogm3">Bilen</a>, a <a href="/facts/Cushitic_languages/IqmX9jps">Cushitic language</a>. Some other languages in the <a href="/facts/Horn_of_Africa/jU4Xk52j">Horn of Africa</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Oromo_language/axmPP527">Oromo</a>, used to be written using Geʽez but have switched to <a href="/facts/Latin_script/7EWeJjUV">Latin</a>-based alphabets. It also uses four series of consonant signs for <a href="/facts/Labialized_velar_consonant/VVUIqtF0">labialized velar</a> consonants, which are variants of the non-labialized velar consonants: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Basic sign</th><td><i>q(a)</i></td><td><i>ḫ(a)</i></td><td><i>k(a)</i></td><td><i>g(a)</i></td></tr><tr><td>ቀ</td><td>ኀ</td><td>ከ</td><td>ገ</td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">Labialized variant</th><td><i>qʷ(a)</i></td><td><i>ḫʷ(a)</i></td><td><i>kʷ(a)</i></td><td><i>gʷ(a)</i></td></tr><tr><td>ቈ</td><td>ኈ</td><td>ኰ</td><td>ጐ</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="history-and-literature">History and literature</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Bible_translations_into_Ge%25CA%25BDez/N06FdSdq">Bible translations into Geʽez</a></p> <p>In addition to the <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Bible</a> including the <a href="/facts/Deuterocanonical_books/ogFvmWvx">Deuterocanonical books</a> there are many medieval and early modern original texts. Most important works are also the literature of the <a href="/facts/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church/zJPygneW">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a> and <a href="/facts/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church/l46wvlRq">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>, which include Christian liturgy (service books, prayers, hymns), <a href="/facts/Hagiography/CtKDrTXm">hagiographies</a>, and <a href="/facts/Patristics/U7y9RICu">Patristic literature</a>. For example, around 200 texts were written about indigenous Ethiopian saints from the fourteenth through the nineteenth century. Traditional education was the responsibility of priests and monks. "The Church thus constituted the custodian of the nation's culture", says <a href="/facts/Richard_Pankhurst_(academic)/mQBq38dd">Richard Pankhurst</a>, who describes the traditional education as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>Traditional education was largely biblical. It began with the learning of the alphabet, or more properly, syllabary... The student's second grade comprised the memorization of the first chapter of the <a href="/facts/First_Epistle_of_John/Kgx2F8pQ">first Epistle General of St. John</a> in Geez. The study of writing would probably also begin at this time, and particularly in more modern times some arithmetic might be added. In the third stage the <a href="/facts/Acts_of_the_Apostles/u0QzNmpd">Acts of the Apostles</a> were studied, while certain prayers were also learnt, and writing and arithmetic continued. ... The fourth stage began with the study of the <a href="/facts/Psalms/QbfaqRCY">Psalms</a> of David and was considered an important landmark in a child's education, being celebrated by the parents with a feast to which the teacher, father confessor, relatives and neighbours were invited. A boy who had reached this stage would moreover usually be able to write, and might act as a letter writer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>However, works of history and chronography, ecclesiastical and civil law, philology, medicine, and letters were also written in Geʽez.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><p>Significant <a href="/facts/Ethiopian_manuscript_collections/QDubwXtk">collections of Ethiopian manuscripts</a> are found outside of Ethiopia in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The collection in the <a href="/facts/British_Library/p01eBQ5A">British Library</a> comprises some 800 manuscripts dating from the 15th to the 20th centuries, notably including magical and divinatory scrolls, and illuminated manuscripts of the 16th to 17th centuries. It was initiated by a donation of 74 codices by the <a href="/facts/Church_of_England_Missionary_Society/wmPD4g2v">Church of England Missionary Society</a> in the 1830s and 1840s, and substantially expanded by 349 codices, looted by the British from the Emperor <a href="/facts/Tewodros_II_of_Ethiopia/ssNNF8fL">Tewodros II</a>'s capital at <a href="/facts/Amba_Mariam/QLw1jzJw">Magdala</a> in the <a href="/facts/1868_Expedition_to_Abyssinia/Kx2w9bEC">1868 Expedition to Abyssinia</a>. The <a href="/facts/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art/mLfcKgHF">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> in New York City has at least two <a href="http://www.metmuseum.org/search-results?ft=Geez">illuminated manuscripts in Geʽez</a>. </p> <h3>Origins</h3> <p>The Geʽez language is classified as a <a href="/facts/South_Semitic_language/LstwCa17">South Semitic language</a>, though an alternative hypothesis posits that the Semitic languages of Eritrea and Ethiopia may best be considered an independent branch of Semitic,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> with Geʽez and the closely related <a href="/facts/Tigrinya_language/KjCdk0vI">Tigrinya</a> and <a href="/facts/Tigre_language/fMU0xPUP">Tigre</a> languages forming a northern branch while <a href="/facts/Amharic_language/zVHLsajh">Amharic</a>, Argobba, Harari and the Gurage languages form the southern branch.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p><p>Inscriptions dating to the mid-1st millennium BCE, written in the <a href="/facts/Sabaean_language/ANnWKRcC">Sabaean language</a> in the <a href="/facts/South_Arabian_alphabet/IYpzKLkk">epigraphic South Arabian script</a>, have been found in the kingdom of <a href="/facts/D%25CA%25BFmt/Gu3mAxh9">Dʿmt</a>, serving at least as a witness to a presence of speakers of Semitic languages in the region. There is some evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in <a href="/facts/Eritrea/tuhgQTdR">Eritrea</a> since approximately 2000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Unlike previously assumed, the Geʽez language is now not regarded as an offshoot of <a href="/facts/Sabaean_language/ANnWKRcC">Sabaean</a> or any other forms of <a href="/facts/Old_South_Arabian/pQTzLGwM">Old South Arabian</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p><p>Early inscriptions in Geʽez from the <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Aksum/oUqHznzK">Kingdom of Aksum</a> (appearing varyingly in the epigraphic South Arabian script, and unvocalized or vocalized Ethiopic/Geʽez script<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a>) have been dated to as early as the 4th century CE. The surviving Geʽez literature properly begins in the same century with the Christianization of the Aksum, during the reign of <a href="/facts/Ezana_of_Axum/hedaghob">Ezana of Aksum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> The oldest known example of the Geʽez script, unvocalized and containing religiously <a href="/facts/Paganism/JaWTHBtJ">pagan</a> references, is found on the <a href="/facts/Hawulti_(monument)/dC5jXf0M">Hawulti</a> obelisk in <a href="/facts/Matara%2c_Eritrea/lqnC0yXo">Matara, Eritrea</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> There exist about a dozen long inscriptions dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, and over 200 short ones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p> <h3>5th to 7th centuries</h3> <p>The oldest surviving Geʽez manuscript is thought to be the second of the <a href="/facts/Garima_Gospels/nQPIBlmN">Garima Gospels</a>, dating to the 5th or 6th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> Almost all transmitted texts from this early "<a href="/facts/Aksumite/oUqHznzK">Aksumite</a>" period are religious (<a href="/facts/Christianity/nKyJHlqq">Christian</a>) in nature, and translated from Greek. Indeed, the range and scope of the translation enterprise undertaken in the first century of the new Axumite church has few parallels in the early centuries of Christian history. The outcome was an Ethiopic Bible containing 81 Books: 46 of the Old Testament and 35 of the New. A number of these Books are called "deuterocanonical" (or "apocryphal" according to certain Western theologians), such as the <a href="/facts/Ascension_of_Isaiah/E0B9IL3C">Ascension of Isaiah</a>, <a href="/facts/Jubilees/MBbXLowz">Jubilees</a>, <a href="/facts/Book_of_Enoch/zHh9YBhR">Enoch</a>, the <a href="/facts/Paralipomena_of_Baruch/98zHUTLA">Paralipomena of Baruch</a>, <a href="/facts/Book_of_Noah/Ml8Xpa9R">Noah</a>, <a href="/facts/Ezra/Rvx1sbAy">Ezra</a>, <a href="/facts/Nehemiah/Jza76TUL">Nehemiah</a>, <a href="/facts/Maccabees/nD1Ipatw">Maccabees</a>, and <a href="/facts/Book_of_Tobit/VpT2lxSe">Tobit</a>. The Book of Enoch in particular is notable since its complete text has survived in no other language; and, for the other works listed, the Ethiopic version is highly regarded as a witness to the original text. </p><p>Also to this early period dates <a href="/facts/Qerlos/6xUtmk89">Qerlos</a>, a collection of Christological writings beginning with the treatise of <a href="/facts/Cyril_of_Alexandria/4Bu7yG0r">Saint Cyril</a> (known as <i>Hamanot Reteʼet</i> or <i>De Recta Fide</i>). These works are the theological foundation of the Ethiopic Church. In the later 5th century, the <a href="/facts/Aksumite_Collection/QbknWtq1">Aksumite Collection</a>—an extensive selection of liturgical, theological, synodical and historical materials—was translated into Geʽez from Greek, providing a fundamental set of instructions and laws for the developing Axumite Church. Included in this collection is a translation of the <a href="/facts/Apostolic_Tradition/D7zQnUb2">Apostolic Tradition</a> (attributed to <a href="/facts/Hippolytus_of_Rome/CpFynoX3">Hippolytus of Rome</a>, and lost in the original Greek) for which the Ethiopic version provides much the best surviving witness. Another important religious document is <i>Serʼata Paknemis</i>, a translation of the monastic Rules of <a href="/facts/Pachomius/V3EWpxld">Pachomius</a>. Non-religious works translated in this period include <i><a href="/facts/Physiologus/sd5oBI02">Physiologus</a></i>, a work of natural history also very popular in Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p><p>The use of Geʽez is also known from many excavated inscriptions. Six Geʽez inscriptions are known from 6th-century South Arabia, from during the reign of <a href="/facts/Kaleb_of_Axum/QbwDLbvP">Kaleb of Aksum</a>, the Aksumite king who <a href="/facts/Aksumite_invasion_of_Himyar/D7Nxdpkk">conquered the Himyarite kingdom</a>. They record his military conquests and contain many religious references, including to biblical figures (such as Jesus, Mary, and David) and scriptural quotations (<a href="/facts/Book_of_Isaiah/TypwqRnK">Isaiah</a> 22:22–23, <a href="/facts/Psalms/QbfaqRCY">Psalms</a> 65:16 and 68:2, <a href="/facts/Gospel_of_Matthew/37PUBgoR">Matthew</a> 6:33, and with less certainty, <a href="/facts/Book_of_Genesis/uFEgtYrb">Genesis</a> 15:7).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> </p> <h3>13th to 14th centuries</h3> <p>After the decline of the Aksumites, a lengthy gap follows; Some writers consider the period beginning from the 14th century an actual "Golden Age" of Geʽez literature—although by this time Geʽez was no longer a living language; in particular in the major enterprise of translating an extensive library of Coptic <a href="/facts/Arabic/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a> religious works into Geʽez. </p><p>While there is ample evidence that it had been replaced by Amharic in the south and by Tigrinya and Tigre in the north, Geʽez remained in use as the official written language until the 19th century, its status comparable to that of <a href="/facts/Medieval_Latin/gyLMjaCX">Medieval Latin</a> in Europe. </p><p>At this time a lot of works of the <a href="/facts/Beta_Israel/KINATX1J">Beta Israel</a> had been turned into Hebraized (i.e. written in the <a href="/facts/Hebrew_alphabet/qQStmr5u">Hebrew alphabet</a>) Geʽez, which made the gradual process of Geʽez being the liturgical language of the Beta Israel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Ethiopic_Alexander_Romance/6GES0Tz6"><i>Ethiopic Alexander Romance</i></a> was produced in this period, the most important Geʽez-language Alexander legend, translated from an earlier Arabic recension of the <a href="/facts/Alexander_Romance/XTDbbGbd">Alexander Romance</a> work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Important <a href="/facts/Hagiographies/CtKDrTXm">hagiographies</a> from this period include: </p> <ul><li>the <i>Gadle Samaʼetat</i> "Acts of the Martyrs"</li> <li>the <i>Gadle Hawaryat</i> "Acts of the Apostles"</li> <li>the <i>Senkessar</i> or <i><a href="/facts/Synaxarium/DX2x2LkS">Synaxarium</a></i>, translated as "The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian Church"</li> <li>Other Lives of <a href="/facts/Anthony_the_Great/1DmV5699">Saint Anthony</a>, <a href="/facts/Saint_George/V83j5eTj">Saint George</a>, Saint <a href="/facts/Tekle_Haymanot/8cwzmT30">Tekle Haymanot</a>, Saint <a href="/facts/Gabra_Manfas_Qeddus/kuqeSNXK">Gabra Manfas Qeddus</a></li></ul> <p>Also at this time the <i><a href="/facts/Apostolic_Constitutions/Q4XESTQg">Apostolic Constitutions</a></i> was retranslated into Geʽez from Arabic. Another translation from this period is Zena ʼAyhud, a translation (probably from an Arabic translation) of Joseph ben Gurion's "History of the Jews" ("Sefer <a href="/facts/Josippon/a5YCCl4V">Josippon</a>") written in Hebrew in the 10th century, which covers the period from the Captivity to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus. Apart from theological works, the earliest contemporary Royal Chronicles of Ethiopia are date to the reign of <a href="/facts/Amda_Seyon_I/QvjCcqcr">Amda Seyon I</a> (1314–44). With the appearance of the "Victory Songs" of Amda Seyon, this period also marks the beginning of Amharic literature. The 14th century <i><a href="/facts/Kebra_Nagast/nRTMYDMI">Kebra Nagast</a></i> or "Glory of the Kings" by the Neburaʼed Yeshaq of Aksum is among the most significant works of Ethiopian literature, combining history, allegory and symbolism in a retelling of the story of the <a href="/facts/Queen_of_Sheba/neqhV5qe">Queen of Sheba</a> (i.e., Saba), <a href="/facts/King_Solomon/UEW5JoNU">King Solomon</a>, and their son <a href="/facts/Menelik_I_of_Ethiopia/T5EFeF9h">Menelik I of Ethiopia</a>. Another work that began to take shape in this period is the <i>Mashafa Aksum</i> or "<a href="/facts/Book_of_Axum/e7Ek0wnj">Book of Axum</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <h3>15th to 16th centuries</h3> <p>The early 15th century <i>Fekkare Iyasus</i> "The Explication of Jesus" contains a prophecy of a king called <i>Tewodros</i>, which rose to importance in 19th century Ethiopia as <a href="/facts/Tewodros_II_of_Ethiopia/ssNNF8fL">Tewodros II</a> chose this throne name. </p><p>Literature flourished especially during the reign of Emperor <a href="/facts/Zara_Yaqob/afAm3Usw">Zara Yaqob</a>. Written by the Emperor himself were <i>Matsʼhafe Berhan</i> ("The Book of Light") and <i>Matshafe Milad</i> ("The Book of Nativity"). Numerous homilies were written in this period, notably <i>Retuʼa Haimanot</i> ("True Orthodoxy") ascribed to <a href="/facts/John_Chrysostom/jKML9owA">John Chrysostom</a>. Also of monumental importance was the appearance of the Geʽez translation of the <a href="/facts/Fetha_Negest/aFV1CLnh">Fetha Negest</a> ("Laws of the Kings"), thought to have been around 1450, and ascribed to one Petros Abda Sayd — that was later to function as the supreme Law for Ethiopia, until it was replaced by a <a href="/facts/1931_Constitution_of_Ethiopia/NTmxw5lq">modern Constitution in 1931</a>. </p><p>By the beginning of the 16th century, the Islamic invasions put an end to the flourishing of Ethiopian literature. A letter of Abba ʼ<a href="/facts/Enbaqom/X09GRVTa">Enbaqom</a> (or "Habakkuk") to <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi/LqWKKuG6">Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi</a>, entitled <i>Anqasa Amin</i> ("Gate of the Faith"), giving his reasons for abandoning <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>, although probably first written in Arabic and later rewritten in an expanded Geʽez version around 1532, is considered one of the classics of later Geʽez literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> During this period, Ethiopian writers begin to address differences between the Ethiopian and the Roman Catholic Church in such works as the <i>Confession</i> of Emperor <a href="/facts/Gelawdewos/xVx7XoFX">Gelawdewos</a>, <i>Sawana Nafs</i> ("Refuge of the Soul"), <i>Fekkare Malakot</i> ("Exposition of the Godhead") and <i>Haymanote Abaw</i> ("Faith of the Fathers"). Around the year 1600, a number of works were translated from Arabic into Geʽez for the first time, including the <i>Chronicle</i> of <a href="/facts/John_of_Nikiu/m110a6j8">John of Nikiu</a> and the <i>Universal History</i> of <a href="/facts/George_Elmacin/HqdpVjSq">George Elmacin</a>. </p> <h3>Current usage in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Israel</h3> <p>Geʽez is the liturgical language of <a href="/facts/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church/l46wvlRq">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo</a>, <a href="/facts/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church/zJPygneW">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo</a>, <a href="/facts/Ethiopian_Catholic_Church/RW2d1Qvy">Ethiopian Catholic</a> and <a href="/facts/Eritrean_Catholic_Church/PYHVDG1q">Eritrean Catholic</a> Christians and the <a href="/facts/Beta_Israel/KINATX1J">Beta Israel</a>, and is used in prayer and in scheduled public celebrations. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Liturgical_rite/Nwg571kJ">liturgical rite</a> used by the Christian churches is referred to as the <a href="/facts/Ethiopic_Rite/oRsaNTrj">Ethiopic Rite</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> or the <a href="/facts/Ge%25CA%25BDez_Rite/oRsaNTrj">Geʽez Rite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sample">Sample</h2> <p>The first sentence of the <a href="/facts/Book_of_Enoch/zHh9YBhR">Book of Enoch</a>: </p> <p>ቃለ</p><p>Qāla</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>በረከት</p><p>barakat</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ዘሄኖክ</p><p>za-Henok</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ዘከመ</p><p>zakama</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ባረከ</p><p>bāraka</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ኅሩያነ</p><p>ḫəruyāna</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ወጻድቃነ</p><p>waṣādəqāna</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>እለ</p><p>ʾəlla</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ሀለዉ</p><p>hallawu</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ይኩኑ</p><p>yəkunu</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>በዕለተ</p><p>baʿəlata</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ምንዳቤ</p><p>məndābe</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ለአሰስሎ</p><p>laʾasassəlo</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ኵሉ</p><p>kʷəllu</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>እኩያን</p><p>ʾəkuyān</p><p>፡</p><p> </p><p>ወረሲዓን</p><p>warasiʿān</p><p>።</p><p> </p><p>ቃለ ፡ በረከት ፡ ዘሄኖክ ፡ ዘከመ ፡ ባረከ ፡ ኅሩያነ ፡ ወጻድቃነ ፡ እለ ፡ ሀለዉ ፡ ይኩኑ ፡ በዕለተ ፡ ምንዳቤ ፡ ለአሰስሎ ፡ ኵሉ ፡ እኩያን ፡ ወረሲዓን ።</p><p>Qāla {} barakat {} za-Henok {} zakama {} bāraka {} ḫəruyāna {} waṣādəqāna {} ʾəlla {} hallawu {} yəkunu {} baʿəlata {} məndābe {} laʾasassəlo {} kʷəllu {} ʾəkuyān {} warasiʿān {}</p><p>"Word of blessing of <a href="/facts/Enoch/kN9wlEDP">Henok</a>, wherewith he blessed the chosen and righteous who would be alive in the day of tribulation for the removal of all wrongdoers and backsliders."</p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ethiopian_chant/v9h0Qvlx">Ethiopian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Languages_of_Eritrea/WN4JFQFs">Languages of Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Languages_of_Ethiopia/7rcN19P3">Languages of Ethiopia</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <h3>External history</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/E._A._Wallis_Budge/HzLvE8Ig">Budge, E. A. Wallis</a> (1928). <i>A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia</i>. Oosterhour, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722">10.4324/9781315762722</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-315-76272-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) (republished 1970)</li> <li>Chain, M. (1909). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070206102731/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm">"Ethiopia"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. V. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Archived from <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm">the original</a> on 2007-02-06.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Stuart_Munro-Hay/juw9DAuN">Stuart, Munro-Hay</a> (1991). <a href="https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/602/aksum.pdf"><i>Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity</i></a> (PDF). Edinburgh: University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7486-0106-6.</li> <li>Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (1968). <i>An Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935</i>. Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press.</li> <li>Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (2003-11-14). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144227/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm">"Abba 'Enbaqom, Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim, and the "Conquest of Abyssinia""</a>. <i>Addis Tribune</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm">the original</a> on 2007-12-09. Retrieved 2022-12-19.</li> <li>Perruchon, J. D.; Gottheil, Richard (1901–1906). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180814213600/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5987-falashas">"Falashas"</a>. <i>The Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5987-falashas">the original</a> on 2018-08-14.</li></ul> <h3>Phonology and grammar</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Marius_Cha%25C3%25AEne/ALCTlRRb">Chaîne, Marius</a>, <i>Grammaire éthiopienne</i>. Beyrouth (<a href="/facts/Beirut/0sxJRAqW">Beirut</a>): Imprimerie catholique 1907, 1938 (Nouvelle édition). (<a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairethiop00chauoft">electronic version</a> at the Internet Archive)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Marcel_Cohen/MTFEFg7y">Cohen, Marcel</a> (1921). "la pronunciation traditionelle du Guèze (éthiopien classique)". <i>Journal Asiatique</i>. 11 (18). (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k932990">electronic version</a> on the <a href="/facts/Gallica/4TNyWsxG">Gallica</a> digital library of the <a href="/facts/Biblioth%25C3%25A8que_nationale_de_France/4TNyWsxG">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>, <a href="/facts/PDF/C9Mn1vYL">PDF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/August_Dillmann/BxWcRIK5">Dillmann, August</a> (1899). <i>Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache</i> (2nd ed.). Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz.</li> <li><a href="/facts/August_Dillmann/BxWcRIK5">Dillmann, August</a>; <a href="/facts/Carl_Bezold/Y7xUpLDh">Bezold, Carl</a>, <i>Ethiopic Grammar</i>, 2nd edition translated from German by James Crichton, London 1907. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-59244-145-7 (2003 reprint). (Published in German: ¹1857, ²1899). (<a href="https://archive.org/details/EthiopicethiopianLanguageGrammarByAugustDillmann">Online version</a> at the <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li>Gragg, Gene (1997a). "Ge'ez Phonology". In Kaye, Alan (ed.). <i>Phonologies of Asia and Africa</i>. Vol. 1. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. 169–186. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-57506-017-5.</li> <li>Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). <i>The Semitic Languages</i>. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-05767-1.</li> <li>Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages</i>. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-56256-0.</li> <li>Kidanä Wäld Kəfle, <i>Maṣḥafa sawāsəw wagəss wamazgaba ḳālāt ḥaddis</i> ("A new grammar and dictionary"), Dire Dawa: Artistik Matämiya Bet 1955/6 (E.C. 1948).</li> <li><a href="/facts/Thomas_Oden_Lambdin/SyUM22aG">Lambdin, Thomas</a> (1978). <i>Introduction to Classical Ethiopic</i>. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-89130-263-6.</li> <li>Mercer, Samuel Alfred Browne, "Ethiopic grammar: with chrestomathy and glossary" 1920 (<a href="https://archive.org/details/ethiopicgrammarw00merc">Online version</a> at the <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li>Mittwoch, Eugen (1926). <i>Die traditionelle Aussprache des äthiopischen</i>. Abessinische Studien. Vol. 1. Berlin & Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter & Co.</li> <li>Praetorius, Franz, <i>Äthiopische Grammatik</i>, Karlsruhe: Reuther 1886.</li> <li>Prochazka, Stephan, <i>Altäthiopische Studiengrammatik</i>, Orbis Biblicus Et Orientalis – Subsidia Linguistica (OBO SL) 2, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlag 2005. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-525-26409-6.</li> <li>Tropper, Josef, <i>Altäthiopisch: Grammatik der Geʽez mit Übungstexten und Glossar</i>, Elementa Linguarum Orientis (ELO) 2, Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2002. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-934628-29-8</li> <li>Tropper, Josef (2021). <i>Classical Ethiopic: A Grammar of Gǝˁǝz</i>. Translated by Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-57506-841-1.</li> <li>Weninger, Stefan, <i>Geʽez grammar</i>, Munich: LINCOM Europa, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-929075-04-5 (1st edition, 1993), <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-89586-604-3 (2nd revised edition, 1999).</li> <li>Weninger, Stefan, <i>Das Verbalsystem des Altäthiopischen: Eine Untersuchung seiner Verwendung und Funktion unter Berücksichtigung des Interferenzproblems</i>, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2001. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-447-04484-4.</li> <li>Zerezghi Haile, Learn Basic Geez Grammar (2015) for Tigrinya readers available at: <a href="https://uwontario.academia.edu/WedGdmhra">https://uwontario.academia.edu/WedGdmhra</a></li></ul> <h3>Literature</h3> <ul><li>Adera, Taddesse, Ali Jimale Ahmed (eds.), <i>Silence Is Not Golden: A Critical Anthology of Ethiopian Literature</i>, Red Sea Press (1995), <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-932415-47-9.</li> <li>Bonk, Jon, <i>Annotated and Classified Bibliography of English Literature Pertaining to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church</i>, Atla Bibliography Series, Scarecrow Pr (1984), <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8108-1710-4.</li> <li>Charles, Robert Henry, <i>The Ethiopic version of the book of Enoch</i>. Oxford 1906. (<a href="https://archive.org/details/ethiopicversiono00charuoft">Online version</a> at the <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/August_Dillmann/BxWcRIK5">Dillmann, August</a>, <i>Chrestomathia Aethiopica</i>. Leipzig 1866. (<a href="https://archive.org/details/chrestomathiaaet00dilluoft">Online version</a> at the Internet Archive)</li> <li>Dillmann, August, <i>Octateuchus Aethiopicus</i>. Leipzig 1853. (<a href="http://www.tau.ac.il/~hacohen/Biblia.html">The first eight books of the Bible in Geʽez. Online version</a>)</li> <li>Dillmann, August, <i>Anthologia Aethiopica, Herausgegeben und mit einem Nachwort versehen von Ernst Hammerschmidt</i>. Hildesheim: Olms Verlag 1988, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-487-07943-1 .</li> <li>The Royal Chronicles of <a href="/facts/Zara_Yaqob/afAm3Usw">Zara Yaqob</a> and <a href="/facts/Baeda_Maryam_of_Ethiopia/I0AUAvfd">Baeda Maryam</a> – French translation and edition of the Geʽez text Paris 1893 (<a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5498437b/f13.image.r=Les%20chroniques%20de%20Zara%20Yaqob">electronic version</a> in Gallica digital library of the Bibliothèque nationale de France)</li> <li>Ethiopic <a href="/facts/Recension/blhFfLtp">recension</a> of the Chronicle of John of Nikiû – Paris 1883 (<a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k108650z.texteImage">electronic version</a>) in Gallica</li></ul> <h3>Dictionaries</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/August_Dillmann/BxWcRIK5">Dillmann, August</a>, <i>Lexicon linguæ Æthiopicæ cum indice Latino</i>, Lipsiae 1865. (<a href="https://archive.org/details/lexiconlinguaeae00dilluoft">Online version</a> at the <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>; <a href="https://betamasaheft.eu/Dillmann/">digitized and searchable</a> at the Beta Maṣāḥəft project)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wolf_Leslau/lRjnCKJG">Leslau, Wolf</a> (1987). <i>Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic): Geez—English, English—Geez, with an Index of the Semitic Roots</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-447-02592-8.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wolf_Leslau/lRjnCKJG">Leslau, Wolf</a> (1989). <i>Concise Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic)</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-447-02873-8.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li>Fonts for Geʽez script: <ul><li><a href="https://fonts.google.com/noto/specimen/Noto+Sans+Ethiopic?query=ethiop"><i>Noto Sans Ethiopic</i></a> – (multiple weights and widths)</li> <li><a href="https://fonts.google.com/noto/specimen/Noto+Serif+Ethiopic?query=MCKL%2F"><i>Noto Serif Ethiopic</i></a> – (multiple weights and widths)</li> <li><a href="https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/download/"><i>Abyssinica SIL</i></a> (<a href="https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/support/character-set-support/">Character set support</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211201154510/https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/support/character-set-support/">Archived</a> 2021-12-01 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060810221758/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/harden_ethiopic_literature.htm">J. M. Harden, <i>An Introduction to Ethiopic Christian Literature</i> (1926)</a></li> <li><a href="http://hmml.org/researcher-identifies-second-oldest-ethiopian-manuscript-in-existence-in-hmmls-archives/">Researcher identifies second-oldest Ethiopian manuscript in existence in HMML's archives</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190311090223/http://hmml.org/researcher-identifies-second-oldest-ethiopian-manuscript-in-existence-in-hmmls-archives/">Archived</a> 2019-03-11 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> (13 July 2010)</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060219131216/http://enlil.ff.cuni.cz/ethiopian/shelf_noframe.htm">Library of Ethiopian Texts</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh"Geez". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) <a href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Geez" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Geez</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Geez". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster."Geez". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Geez" target="_blank">https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Geez</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 400: Ge‘zLeslau 1989, p. 209: gəʽəzLeslau 1987, p. 175: gəʿzCohen 1921, p. 217, «il vaut mieux préciser en éthiopien classique ou employer le nom indigène; celui-ci est ግእዝ፡, c’est-à-dire en prononciation restituée gə‘əz ou gə‘z, et gəəz dans la prononciation abyssine actuelle»[it is worth it to be precise using Classical Ethiopic or the indigenous name, which is ግእዝ፡, that is (in reconstructed pronunciation gə‘əz or gə‘z, and gəəz {i.e. IPA [ˈgɨʔɨz] with a glottal stop} in today's Abyssinian pronunciation] - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Bender, M. L. (May 1971). "The Languages of Ethiopia: A New Lexicostatistic Classification and Some Problems of Diffusion". Anthropological Linguistics. 13 (5): 173. JSTOR 30029540. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Connell, Dan; Killion, Tom (2010). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea (2nd ed.). Scarecrow. p. 508. ISBN 978-0-8108-7505-0. <a href="978-0-8108-7505-0" target="_blank">978-0-8108-7505-0</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Haarmann, Harald (2002). Lexikon der untergegangenen Sprachen [Lexicon of extinct languages] (in German) (2nd ed.). C. H. Beck. p. 76. ISBN 978-3-406-47596-2. <a href="978-3-406-47596-2" target="_blank">978-3-406-47596-2</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Amsalu Aklilu, Kuraz Publishing Agency, ጥሩ የአማርኛ ድርሰት እንዴት ያለ ነው! p. 42 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>/æ/ in the Amharic liturgical pronunciation,[14] or /ɐ/[15] (as in Tigrinya). <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>According to Lambdin.[16] <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Gragg 1997a, pp. 177–178. - Gragg, Gene (1997a). "Ge'ez Phonology". In Kaye, Alan (ed.). Phonologies of Asia and Africa. Vol. 1. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. 169–186. ISBN 1-57506-017-5. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 246. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 2. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 244. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 245. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Weninger, Stefan (2011). "Sounds of Gǝʽǝz – How to Study the Phonetics and Phonology of an Ancient Language". Aethiopica. 13: 75–88. doi:10.15460/aethiopica.13.1.39. <a href="https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/aethiopica/article/view/39/20" target="_blank">https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/aethiopica/article/view/39/20</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>The emphatic consonants of Geʽez were likely realized as ejectives, as in the modern Ethiopian Semitic languages. <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" target="_blank">/wiki/Emphatic_consonant</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Mittwoch 1926, as used by Tropper 2021, § 3.5, and largely identical to Lambdin 1978, pp. 5, 29, 36, 40, 57, 97 - Mittwoch, Eugen (1926). Die traditionelle Aussprache des äthiopischen. Abessinische Studien. Vol. 1. Berlin & Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter & Co. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Dillmann 1899, as cited by Tropper 2021, § 3.5.2 in footnotes 45–46 - Dillmann, August (1899). Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache (2nd ed.). Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 246. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 26. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 21. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Tropper 2021, § 4.1.2.2. - Tropper, Josef (2021). Classical Ethiopic: A Grammar of Gǝˁǝz. Translated by Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-1-57506-841-1. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 40. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 248. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 440. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 248. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 248. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 440. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 29. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 41: "Plural noun. All plural nouns have a suffix -i- added to the stem before the pronominal suffixes. [...] There are no distinct accusative forms." - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Lambdin 1978, pp. 40–41. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>-ቢየ -íya is a variant mostly found in older manuscripts.[36] <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>These two forms are in free variation.[36] <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 23. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 44. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 45. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Lambdin 1978, p. 16. - Lambdin, Thomas (1978). Introduction to Classical Ethiopic. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-89130-263-6. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Gragg 1997b, p. 257. - Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 242–260. ISBN 0-415-05767-1. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Pankhurst 1968, pp. 666f; cf. the EOTC's own account at its official website. "Church Teachings". Retrieved from the Internet Archive on March 12, 2014. - Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (1968). An Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935. Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>"Ethiopic Language in the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia". International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online. <a href="http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html" target="_blank">http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>M., E. (1935). "Note on the Languages of Abyssinia". Bulletin of International News. 12 (12): 3–5. ISSN 2044-3986. JSTOR 25639482. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25639482" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/25639482</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 428. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Stuart 1991, p. 57. - Stuart, Munro-Hay (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity (PDF). Edinburgh: University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0106-6. <a href="https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/602/aksum.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/602/aksum.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Weninger, Stefan, "Geʽez" in Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha, p.732. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 428. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 430. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>"Ethiopic Language in the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia". International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online. <a href="http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html" target="_blank">http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 430. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Edward Ullendorff, "The Obelisk of Matara", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 1/2 (April, 1951), pp. 26–32 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25222457" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/25222457</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Gragg 2008, p. 430. - Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>A conservator at work on the Garima Gospels (2010-07-14). ""Discovery of earliest illustrated manuscript," Martin Bailey, June 2010". Theartnewspaper.com. Retrieved 2012-07-11. <a href="https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2010/07/discovery-of-earliest-illuminated.html" target="_blank">https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2010/07/discovery-of-earliest-illuminated.html</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>"The Arts Newspaper June 2010 – Abuna Garima Gospels". Ethiopianheritagefund.org. Archived from the original on 2012-05-01. Retrieved 2012-07-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120501030359/http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120501030359/http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Budge 1928, pp. 566f.. - Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia. Oosterhour, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. doi:10.4324/9781315762722. ISBN 978-1-315-76272-2. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Hatke, Georg (2022). "Religious Ideology in the Gəʿəz Epigraphic Corpus from Yemen". Rocznik Orientalistyczny. 75 (2): 76–78. ISSN 0080-3545. <a href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1089523" target="_blank">https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1089523</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Budge 1928, p. 574. - Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia. Oosterhour, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. doi:10.4324/9781315762722. ISBN 978-1-315-76272-2. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Asirvatham, Sulochana (2014). "The Alexander romance tradition from Egypt to Ethiopia". Acta Classica. <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC165410" target="_blank">https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC165410</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Budge 1928, p. 574. - Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia. Oosterhour, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. doi:10.4324/9781315762722. ISBN 978-1-315-76272-2. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Pankhurst 2003. - Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (2003-11-14). "Abba 'Enbaqom, Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim, and the "Conquest of Abyssinia"". Addis Tribune. Archived from the original on 2007-12-09. Retrieved 2022-12-19. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144227/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144227/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Bryan D. Spinks, The Sanctus in the Eucharistic Prayer (Cambridge University Press 2002 ISBN 978-0-521-52662-3), p. 119 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Anscar J. Chupungco, Handbook for Liturgical Studies (Liturgical Press 1997 ISBN 978-0-8146-6161-1), p. 13 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Archdale King, The Rites of Eastern Christendom, vol. 1 (Gorgias Press LLC 2007 ISBN 978-1-59333-391-1), p. 533 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (C. Hurst & Co. 2000 ISBN 978-1-85065-393-6), p. 127 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley (editors), The Encyclopedia of Christianity, vol. 2 (Eerdmans 1999 ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5), p. 158 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky (editors), Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia (Scarecrow Press 2013), p. 93 <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Walter Raunig, Steffen Wenig (editors), Afrikas Horn (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005, ISBN 978-3-447-05175-0), p. 171 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>