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Georgian language
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<h2 id="classification">Classification</h2> <p>No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in the world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called <a href="/facts/Zan_languages/Ib55jnqh">Zan languages</a> (<a href="/facts/Megrelian_language/Q0X5S6NL">Megrelian</a> and <a href="/facts/Laz_language/dAetT4V9">Laz</a>); <a href="/facts/Glottochronology/IhWs6a0L">glottochronological</a> studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. <a href="/facts/Svan_language/nwq5SRYl">Svan</a> is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="dialects">Dialects</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Georgian_dialects/K4u5mFCQ">Georgian dialects</a></p> <p>Standard Georgian is largely based on the <a href="/facts/Kartli/F2R9cunw">Kartlian</a> dialect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Kartvelian_languages/0SUb5BR9">Kartvelian languages</a>, <a href="/facts/Proto-Kartvelian_language/EKttVBfs">Proto-Kartvelian language</a>, <a href="/facts/Proto-Georgian%25E2%2580%2593Zan_language/JTPyAsYA">Proto-Georgian–Zan language</a>, and <a href="/facts/Old_Georgian/dS2q251Q">Old Georgian</a></p> <p>The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Early <a href="/facts/Old_Georgian_language/dS2q251Q">Old Georgian</a>: 5th–8th centuries</li> <li>Classical Old Georgian: 9th–11th centuries</li> <li>Middle Georgian: 11th/12th–17th/18th centuries</li> <li>Modern Georgian: 17th/18th century–present</li></ul> <p>The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of <a href="/facts/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto/wy1lJ8wG">Marcus Cornelius Fronto</a>, a Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and <a href="/facts/Palimpsest/ex7L751z">palimpsests</a> dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century <i><a href="/facts/Martyrdom_of_the_Holy_Queen_Shushanik/sGGUgYYu">Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Iakob_Tsurtaveli/f52XsA1L">Iakob Tsurtaveli</a>. </p><p>The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the <a href="/facts/Christianization_of_Georgia/kkC55K4J">Christianization of Georgia</a> in the mid-4th century, which led to the replacement of <a href="/facts/Aramaic/FpvKez1w">Aramaic</a> as the <a href="/facts/Literary_language/NAWrUgrk">literary language</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the <a href="/facts/National_epic/oXswKDzk">epic poem</a> <i><a href="/facts/The_Knight_in_the_Panther%2527s_Skin/qNRXdCsq">The Knight in the Panther's Skin</a>,</i> written by <a href="/facts/Shota_Rustaveli/NhuxCeS6">Shota Rustaveli</a> in the 12th century. </p><p>In 1629, a certain <a href="/facts/Nikoloz_Cholokashvili/FnWeATo7">Nikoloz Cholokashvili</a> authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the <i><a href="/facts/Alphabetum_Ibericum_sive_Georgianum_cum_Oratione/fdxDsBgL">Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione</a></i> and the <i><a href="/facts/Dittionario_giorgiano_e_italiano/pnY8j7qc">Dittionario giorgiano e italiano</a></i>. These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for <a href="/facts/Evangelism/eTtegu8a">evangelical</a> purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="phonology">Phonology</h2> <h3>Consonants</h3> <p>On the left are IPA symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian <a href="/facts/Alphabet/vqfRpS3E">alphabet</a>, which is essentially phonemic. </p> Consonants<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2"> </th><th><a href="/facts/Labial_consonant/bv4MqTMf">Labial</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Dental_consonant/Yraaz9Nm">Dental</a>/<a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Postalveolar_consonant/YUo5nJly">Post-alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Uvular_consonant/XA5mSSKK">Uvular</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Glottal_consonant/rMdEdLxH">Glottal</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nasal_consonant/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_nasal/1pd7NK2x">m</a> მ</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_nasal/0CEs8314">n</a> ნ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Stop_consonant/okC9pztc">Stop</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">aspirated</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">pʰ</a> ფ</td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">tʰ</a> თ</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">kʰ</a> ქ</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiced</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_plosive/6ReC9arR">b</a> ბ7, 8, 10</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_plosive/A6hNvmCp">d</a> დ7, 8, 10</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_plosive/f6udTvfQ">ɡ</a> გ7, 8, 10</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Ejective_consonant/TDKaffPV">ejective</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Bilabial_ejective_stop/xrN47eFU">pʼ</a> პ</td><td><a href="/facts/Alveolar_ejective_stop/ea7ahEWx">tʼ</a> ტ</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Velar_ejective_stop/lNW5fHwr">kʼ</a> კ</td><td><a href="/facts/Uvular_ejective_stop/EVYDIWzQ">qʼ</a>3 ყ</td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Affricate_consonant/Fn2y7FIA">Affricate</a></th><th>(aspirated)</th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">t͡sʰ</a>1 ც</td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">t͡ʃʰ</a>1 ჩ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>voiced</th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_affricate/rKxCFyD1">d͡z</a> ძ</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate/o7oYJUqz">d͡ʒ</a> ჯ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>ejective</th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Alveolar_ejective_affricate/cYxdrDPc">t͡sʼ</a> წ</td><td><a href="/facts/Palato-alveolar_ejective_affricate/TABCQBJI">t͡ʃʼ</a> ჭ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fricative_consonant/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><th>voiceless</th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">s</a> ს</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative/enUwqS2w">ʃ</a> შ</td><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">x</a> 2 ხ</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_glottal_fricative/lfRB7CPW">h</a> ჰ</td></tr><tr><th>voiced </th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_labiodental_fricative/v9lESng4">v</a> ვ6</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_fricative/TtHwyzp6">z</a> ზ</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative/Tb8XpRoS">ʒ</a> ჟ</td><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_fricative/ESy9fy1G">ɣ</a> 2 ღ</td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Vibrant/ArFTYIgr">Vibrant</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a> რ4,9</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Lateral_consonant/Mcyc1or8">Lateral</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a> ლ5</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>Opinions differ on the aspiration of /t͡sʰ, t͡ʃʰ/, as it is non-contrastive.</li> <li>Opinions differ on how to classify /<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">x</a>/ and /<a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_fricative/ESy9fy1G">ɣ</a>/; Aronson (1990) classifies them as post-velar, Hewitt (1995) argues that they range from velar to uvular according to context.</li> <li>The uvular ejective stop is commonly realized as a uvular ejective fricative [<a href="/facts/Uvular_ejective_fricative/nxj9fpcu">χʼ</a>] but it can also be [<a href="/facts/Uvular_ejective_stop/EVYDIWzQ">qʼ</a>], [<a href="/facts/Glottal_stop/Xfqy2ArP">ʔ</a>], or [<a href="/facts/Uvular_ejective_affricate/6PVD1VsW">qχʼ</a>], they are in free variation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a>/ is realized as an alveolar tap [<a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps/EvQ781EU">ɾ</a>] <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> though [<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a>] occurs in free variation.</li> <li>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a>/ is pronounced as a velarized [<a href="/facts/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">ɫ</a>] before back vowels; it is pronounced as [<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a>] in the environment of front vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></li> <li>/<a href="/facts/Voiced_labiodental_fricative/v9lESng4">v</a>/ is realized in most contexts as a bilabial fricative [<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_fricative/2ljHM92m">β</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Voiced_labiodental_fricative/v9lESng4">v</a>],<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> but has the following allophones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> <ol><li>before voiceless consonants, it is realized as [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative/dUkN8guL">f</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative/mccNzbmL">ɸ</a>].</li> <li>after voiceless consonants it is also voiceless and has been interpreted either as labialization of the preceding consonant [<a href="/facts/Labialization/gxgAWAQI">ʷ</a>] or simply as [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative/mccNzbmL">ɸ</a>].</li> <li>whether it is realized as labialization after voiced consonants is debated.</li> <li>word-initially before the vowel /u/ and sometimes before other consonants it may be deleted entirely.</li></ol></li> <li>In initial positions, /b, d, ɡ/ are pronounced as a weakly voiced [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></li> <li>In word-final positions, /b, d, ɡ/ may be devoiced and aspirated to [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li>/r/ may be dropped in CrC contexts in colloquial speech.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></li> <li>Word-final /b, d, ɡ/ may be realized as unreleased stops [b̚, d̚, ɡ̚] before another obstruent at word boundaries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></li></ol> <p>Former /qʰ/ (ჴ) has merged with /x/ (ხ), leaving only the latter. </p><p>The glottalization of the ejectives is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the <a href="/facts/Tenuis_consonant/1px0NAKF">tenuis stops</a> in foreign words and names with the ejectives. </p><p>The coronal occlusives (/tʰ tʼ d n/, not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Vowels</h3> Vowel phonemes<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Central_vowel/IFSaKUe9">Central</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">Close</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a> ი</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a> უ</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Mid_vowel/uzjGLRhf">Mid</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/e9YNLF97">e</a> ე</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel/VwS9cKWJ">o</a> ო</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Open_vowel/roS0Y7lA">Open</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Open_front_unrounded_vowel/s80pvmYh">a</a> ა</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table><p>Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [<a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a>], [<a href="/facts/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel/wJxU5vKm">e̞</a>], [<a href="/facts/Open_central_unrounded_vowel/XuGme0KM">ä</a>], [<a href="/facts/Mid_back_rounded_vowel/kYk2fqAY">o̞</a>], [<a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>Aronson describes their realizations as [<a href="/facts/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel/1eQAfkDy">i̞</a>], [<a href="/facts/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel/wJxU5vKm">e̞</a>], [<a href="/facts/Open_central_unrounded_vowel/XuGme0KM">ä</a>] (but "slightly fronted"), [<a href="/facts/Mid_back_rounded_vowel/kYk2fqAY">o̞</a>], [<a href="/facts/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel/4taYcT5v">u̞</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [<a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a>], [<a href="/facts/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/aDRvwE46">ɛ</a>], [<a href="/facts/Open_back_unrounded_vowel/znr1wT5C">ɑ</a>], [<a href="/facts/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel/yMNUClGt">ɔ</a>], [<a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Allophonically, [<a href="/facts/Mid_central_vowel/CCx0wYy3">ə</a>] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in /dɡas/ [dəɡäs].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>In casual speech, /i/ preceded or followed by a vowel may be realized as [<a href="/facts/Semivowel/9nPDkQdw">i̯</a>]~[<a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_approximant/v0NVCbUh">j</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>Phrase-final unstressed vowels are sometimes partially reduced.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <h3>Prosody</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Prosody_(linguistics)/UDzAIz46">Prosody</a> in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of <a href="/facts/Pitch_accent/aIQu5zse">pitch accents</a> on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>According to Borise,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of a word.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p><p>According to Gamq'relidze et al, quadrisyllabic words may be exceptionally stressed on their second syllable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Stressed vowels in Georgian have slightly longer duration, more intensity, and higher pitch compared to unstressed vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p><p>Some Georgian dialects have distinctive stress.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <h3>Phonotactics</h3> <p>Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. ბგერა <i>bgera</i> 'sound', ცხოვრება <i>tskhovreba</i> 'life', and წყალი <i>ts’q’ali</i> 'water'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> There are also frequent <a href="/facts/Consonant_cluster/CxFhVk8X">consonant clusters</a>, sometimes involving more than six consonants in a row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნი <i>gvprtskvni</i> 'you peel us' and მწვრთნელი <i>mts’vrtneli</i> 'trainer'. </p><p>Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have <a href="/facts/Creaky_voice/DmK0X4zr">creaky voice</a> and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="writing-system">Writing system</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Georgian_scripts/43Afaqmj">Georgian scripts</a> and <a href="/facts/Georgian_Braille/otJ49deu">Georgian Braille</a></p> <p>Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently the <i><a href="/facts/Mkhedruli/43Afaqmj">Mkhedruli</a></i> script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture. </p><p><i>Mkhedruli</i> has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of <i>Mkhedruli</i> correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language. </p><p>According to the traditional account written down by <a href="/facts/Leonti_Mroveli/0w5KkDQN">Leonti Mroveli</a> in the 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)/U34IMNlv">Kingdom of Iberia</a>, <a href="/facts/Pharnavaz_I_of_Iberia/ebaL1eGU">Pharnavaz</a>, in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called <i><a href="/facts/Asomtavruli/43Afaqmj">Asomtavruli</a></i> 'capitals', <i><a href="/facts/Nuskhuri/43Afaqmj">Nuskhuri</a></i> 'small letters', and <i>Mkhedruli</i>. The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of the <a href="/facts/Georgian_Orthodox_Church/QtUYlyQ2">Georgian Orthodox Church</a> and together are called <i>Khutsuri</i> 'priest alphabet'. </p><p>In <i>Mkhedruli</i>, there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called <i>Mtavruli</i> ('title' or 'heading'), is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and the like. </p> Modern Georgian alphabet<table><tbody><tr><th>Letter</th><th>National transcription</th><th>IPA transcription</th></tr><tr><th>ა</th><td><i>a</i></td><td>[ä]</td></tr><tr><th>ბ</th><td><i>b</i></td><td>[b]</td></tr><tr><th>გ</th><td><i>g</i></td><td>[ɡ]</td></tr><tr><th>დ</th><td><i>d</i></td><td>[d]</td></tr><tr><th>ე</th><td><i>e</i></td><td>[e̞]</td></tr><tr><th>ვ</th><td><i>v</i></td><td>[v~w]</td></tr><tr><th>ზ</th><td><i>z</i></td><td>[z]</td></tr><tr><th>თ</th><td><i>t</i></td><td>[tʰ]</td></tr><tr><th>ი</th><td><i>i</i></td><td>[i]</td></tr><tr><th>კ</th><td><i>k’</i></td><td>[kʼ]</td></tr><tr><th>ლ</th><td><i>l</i></td><td>[l]</td></tr><tr><th>მ</th><td><i>m</i></td><td>[m]</td></tr><tr><th>ნ</th><td><i>n</i></td><td>[n]</td></tr><tr><th>ო</th><td><i>o</i></td><td>[o̞]</td></tr><tr><th>პ</th><td><i>p’</i></td><td>[pʼ]</td></tr><tr><th>ჟ</th><td><i>zh</i></td><td>[ʒ]</td></tr><tr><th>რ</th><td><i>r</i></td><td>[r]</td></tr><tr><th>ს</th><td><i>s</i></td><td>[s]</td></tr><tr><th>ტ</th><td><i>t’</i></td><td>[tʼ]</td></tr><tr><th>უ</th><td><i>u</i></td><td>[u]</td></tr><tr><th>ფ</th><td><i>p</i></td><td>[pʰ]</td></tr><tr><th>ქ</th><td><i>k</i></td><td>[kʰ]</td></tr><tr><th>ღ</th><td><i>gh</i></td><td>[ɣ]</td></tr><tr><th>ყ</th><td><i>q’</i></td><td>[qʼ]</td></tr><tr><th>შ</th><td><i>sh</i></td><td>[ʃ]</td></tr><tr><th>ჩ</th><td><i>ch</i></td><td>[t͡ʃʰ]</td></tr><tr><th>ც</th><td><i>ts</i></td><td>[t͡sʰ]</td></tr><tr><th>ძ</th><td><i>dz</i></td><td>[d͡z]</td></tr><tr><th>წ</th><td><i>ts’</i></td><td>[t͡sʼ]</td></tr><tr><th>ჭ</th><td><i>ch’</i></td><td>[t͡ʃʼ]</td></tr><tr><th>ხ</th><td><i>kh</i></td><td>[x]</td></tr><tr><th>ჯ</th><td><i>j</i></td><td>[d͡ʒ]</td></tr><tr><th>ჰ</th><td><i>h</i></td><td>[h]</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Keyboard layout</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Georgian_keyboard_layout/Q3rSLlIh">Georgian keyboard layout</a></p> <p>This is the Georgian standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual <a href="/facts/Typewriter/CHE43FWP">typewriters</a>. </p> <table><tbody><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Quotation_mark_glyphs/hIdA4WEo">“</a><a href="/facts/Quotation_mark_glyphs/hIdA4WEo">„</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/1_(number)/m3wpSfMf">1</a><a href="/facts/Exclamation_mark/joGCCBau">!</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/2_(number)/u5WC44t9">2</a><a href="/facts/Question_mark/0D8z1rxr">?</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/3_(number)/6QzW9RkE">3</a><a href="/facts/Numero_sign/RR4DoBSf">№</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/4_(number)/zwN4alXI">4</a><a href="/facts/Section_sign/fdPt1SH6">§</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/5_(number)/gshjM6ID">5</a><a href="/facts/Percent_sign/pLdHNKar">%</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/6_(number)/MsEd6F54">6</a><a href="/facts/Colon_(punctuation)/se9fjJa4">:</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/7_(number)/4GV2hz09">7</a><a href="/facts/Full_stop/w0Ylafwn">.</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/8_(number)/TljQxSx9">8</a><a href="/facts/Semicolon/VY8VsSPC">;</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/9_(number)/q5jvU1Dv">9</a><a href="/facts/Comma/mcW9dcGT">,</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/0_(number)/4NBRtKHc">0</a><a href="/facts/Slash_(punctuation)/fuaRyKzc">/</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Hyphen-minus/TnWuz7hd">-</a><a href="/facts/Underscore/KJsRo3tA">_</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Plus_and_minus_signs/6RJD4Xt9">+</a><a href="/facts/Equals_sign/AweYSg9h">=</a></td><td> ← <a href="/facts/Backspace/ySuesUGR">Backspace</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Tab_key/gTyIhqBe">Tab key</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A6/INbQLcmQ">ღ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25AF/6mHRsq0p">ჯ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A3/YAVetqyt">უ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2599/W4mMkH0a">კ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2594/Tg2gdRXq">ე</a> <a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B1/ql1LLufV">ჱ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%259C/dJcVUqJ7">ნ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2592/XIqF30W4">გ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A8/fIxbVoCQ">შ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25AC/3f1Voh9G">წ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2596/FW3nuca5">ზ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25AE/MJAxBRnE">ხ</a> <a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B4/N9J8m47k">ჴ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25AA/uqcDeXYa">ც</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Parentheses/yzGM9J8A">)</a><a href="/facts/Parentheses/yzGM9J8A">(</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Caps_lock/oWHJMrlx">Caps lock</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A4/Nqhv7Acb">ფ</a> <a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B6/43Afaqmj">ჶ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25AB/M6vhTYM6">ძ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2595/GVF3yX9x">ვ</a> <a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B3/b9fY8hnV">ჳ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2597/HaUWcJ9W">თ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2590/JjWCD1sc">ა</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%259E/3MqSloy6">პ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A0/2Eobsdu5">რ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%259D/2js9Qjpp">ო</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%259A/yl4rpDwF">ლ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2593/fn64bF70">დ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%259F/XEz1prmS">ჟ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Enter_key/bglB8wv0">Enter key</a> ↵</td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Shift_key/d0gXS7Jd">Shift key</a> ↑</td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25AD/FQMCWQen">ჭ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A9/RIxCmoKq">ჩ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A7/bmonQhA9">ყ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A1/RxUsDJRY">ს</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%259B/TyazoSzy">მ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2598/ugVbgjY3">ი</a> <a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B2/nKy5fkoI">ჲ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A2/WJQxWlcR">ტ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25A5/KqwgybtR">ქ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%2591/FcdUvIAW">ბ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B0/odBKaVI7">ჰ</a> <a href="/facts/%25E1%2583%25B5/oxlRCGWf">ჵ</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Shift_key/d0gXS7Jd">Shift key</a> ↑</td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Control_key/31XW606Y">Control key</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Windows_key/I83vm9B4">Win key</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Alt_key/cbVoaFnL">Alt key</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Space_bar/tjj7t61S">Space bar</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/AltGr_key/krEsBUjB">AltGr key</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Windows_key/I83vm9B4">Win key</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Menu_key/0wXBM3Aj">Menu key</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Control_key/31XW606Y">Control key</a></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="grammar">Grammar</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Georgian_grammar/sNXssRR4">Georgian grammar</a> and <a href="/facts/Georgian_verb_paradigm/8cuJIsSQ">Georgian verb paradigm</a></p> <h3>Morphology</h3> <p>Georgian is an <a href="/facts/Agglutinative_language/yd4Iee5p">agglutinative language</a>. Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is <i>ageshenebinat</i> ('you [all] should've built [it]'). The verb can be broken down to parts: <i>a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t</i>. Each morpheme here contributes to the meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits <a href="/facts/Polypersonalism/PcJLFNI9">polypersonalism</a>; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object. </p> <h4>Morphophonology</h4> <p>In Georgian <a href="/facts/Morphophonology/9nSxET9L">morphophonology</a>, <a href="/facts/Syncope_(phonetics)/tL4MKHht">syncope</a> is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix -<i>eb</i>-) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels <i>a</i> or <i>e</i> in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, <i>megobari</i> means 'friend'; <i>megobrebi</i> (<i>megobØrebi</i>) means 'friends', with the loss of <i>a</i> in the last syllable of the word stem. </p> <h4>Inflection</h4> <p>Georgian has seven noun cases: <a href="/facts/Nominative_case/wXX3Vn4x">nominative</a>, <a href="/facts/Ergative_case/Duj9SL9D">ergative</a>, <a href="/facts/Dative_case/bBjY0RVf">dative</a>, <a href="/facts/Genitive_case/nMXh3StK">genitive</a>, <a href="/facts/Instrumental_case/NvGhAHWa">instrumental</a>, <a href="/facts/Adverbial_case/hJVJ5hcJ">adverbial</a> and <a href="/facts/Vocative_case/xKY0N2tb">vocative</a>. An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the <a href="/facts/Accusative_case/HA1Q81qd">accusative case</a> (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on the character of the verb). This is called the <a href="/facts/Dative_construction/o6arKh11">dative construction</a>. In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case. </p> <h3>Syntax</h3> <ul><li>Georgian is a <a href="/facts/Left-branching/dYkVRqwK">left-branching</a> language, in which adjectives precede nouns, <a href="/facts/Possession_(linguistics)/2hpTQmxo">possessors</a> precede possessions, objects normally precede verbs, and <a href="/facts/Postpositions/Bhz0tAMI">postpositions</a> are used instead of <a href="/facts/Prepositions/Bhz0tAMI">prepositions</a>.</li> <li>Each postposition (whether a suffix or a separate word) requires the modified noun to be in a specific case. This is similar to the way prepositions govern specific cases in many <a href="/facts/Indo-European_languages/L34TfgSr">Indo-European languages</a> such as <a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a>, <a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>, or <a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a>.</li> <li>Georgian is a <a href="/facts/Pro-drop/c9K9lauu">pro-drop</a> language; both subject and object pronouns are frequently omitted except for emphasis or to resolve ambiguity.</li> <li>A study by Skopeteas <i>et al.</i> concluded that Georgian word order tends to place the <a href="/facts/Focus_(linguistics)/B2VnJYrz">focus</a> of a sentence immediately before the verb, and the <a href="/facts/Topic_(linguistics)/vow08bl6">topic</a> before the focus. A subject–object–verb (<a href="/facts/Subject%25E2%2580%2593object%25E2%2580%2593verb/yqAybkWr">SOV</a>) word order is common in idiomatic expressions and when the focus of a sentence is on the object. A subject–verb–object (<a href="/facts/Subject%25E2%2580%2593verb%25E2%2580%2593object/N0DS8deK">SVO</a>) word order is common when the focus is on the subject, or in longer sentences. Object-initial word orders (<a href="/facts/Object%25E2%2580%2593subject%25E2%2580%2593verb/51oGjDl6">OSV</a> or <a href="/facts/Object%25E2%2580%2593verb%25E2%2580%2593subject/5e5wXJ3D">OVS</a>) are also possible, but less common. Verb-initial word orders including both subject and object (<a href="/facts/Verb%25E2%2580%2593subject%25E2%2580%2593object/uYtjUPIh">VSO</a> or <a href="/facts/Verb%25E2%2580%2593object%25E2%2580%2593subject/9dWphNMh">VOS</a>) are extremely rare.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></li> <li>Georgian has no <a href="/facts/Grammatical_gender/2hEshpnP">grammatical gender</a>; even the pronouns are ungendered.</li> <li>Georgian has no <a href="/facts/Article_(grammar)/dLXmIPh1">articles</a>. Therefore, for example, "guest", "a guest" and "the guest" are said in the same way. In <a href="/facts/Relative_clause/zFSPHLwE">relative clauses</a>, however, it is possible to establish the meaning of the definite article through use of some particles.</li></ul> <h2 id="vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2> <p>Georgian has a rich <a href="/facts/Derivation_(linguistics)/1ED86Ao8">word-derivation</a> system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root -<i>kart</i>-, the following words can be derived: <i>Kartveli</i> ('a Georgian person'), <i>Kartuli</i> ('the Georgian language') and <i>Sakartvelo</i> ('the country of Georgia'). </p><p>Most <a href="/facts/Georgian_surnames/YuI1fDTo">Georgian surnames</a> end in -<i>dze</i> 'son' (Western Georgia), -<i>shvili</i> 'child' (Eastern Georgia), -<i>ia</i> (Western Georgia, <a href="/facts/Samegrelo/HWsFtfxj">Samegrelo</a>), -<i>ani</i> (Western Georgia, <a href="/facts/Svaneti/2Qo1zVfs">Svaneti</a>), -<i>uri</i> (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending -<i>eli</i> is a particle of nobility, comparable to French <i>de</i>, Dutch <i>van</i>, German <i>von</i> or Polish -<i>ski</i>. </p><p>Georgian has a <a href="/facts/Vigesimal/zvzFVBsL">vigesimal</a> numeric system like <a href="/facts/Basque_language/rEMpH97p">Basque</a> and (partially) <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a>. Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as 'four times twenty plus thirteen' (ოთხმოცდაცამეტი, <i>otkhmotsdatsamet’i</i>). </p><p>One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the <i><a href="/facts/Explanatory_dictionary_of_the_Georgian_language/tCrBC0Tg">Explanatory dictionary of the Georgian language</a></i> (ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of <a href="/facts/Arnold_Chikobava/p10NmlzD">Arnold Chikobava</a>. </p> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> <h3>Word formations</h3> <p>Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example: </p> <ul><li>From the root -<i>ts’er</i>- 'write', the words <i>ts’erili</i> 'letter' and <i>mts’erali</i> 'writer' are derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>tsa</i>- 'give', the word <i>gadatsema</i> 'broadcast' is derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>tsda</i>- 'try', the word <i>gamotsda</i> 'exam' is derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>gav</i>- 'resemble', the words <i>msgavsi</i> 'similar' and <i>msgavseba</i> 'similarity' are derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>shen</i>- 'build', the word <i>shenoba</i> 'building' is derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>tskh</i>- 'bake', the word <i>namtskhvari</i> 'cake' is derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>tsiv</i>- 'cold', the word <i>matsivari</i> 'refrigerator' is derived.</li> <li>From the root -<i>pr</i>- 'fly', the words <i>tvitmprinavi</i> 'airplane' and <i>aprena</i> 'takeoff' are derived.</li></ul> <p>It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns: </p> <ul><li>From the noun -<i>omi</i>- 'war', the verb <i>omob</i> 'you wage/are waging war' is derived.</li> <li>From the noun -<i>sadili</i>- 'lunch', the verb <i>sadilob</i> 'you eat/are eating lunch' is derived.</li> <li>From the noun -<i>sauzme</i> 'breakfast', the verb <i>ts’asauzmeba</i> 'eating a little breakfast' is derived; the preverb <i>ts’a</i>- in Georgian adds the meaning 'a little'.</li> <li>From the noun -<i>sakhli</i>- 'home', the verb <i>gadasakhleba</i> 'relocating, moving' is derived.</li></ul> <p>Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example: </p> <ul><li>From the adjective -<i>ts’iteli</i>- 'red', the verb <i>gats’itleba</i> 'blushing, making one blush' is derived. This kind of derivation can be done with many adjectives in Georgian.</li> <li>From the adjective -<i>brma</i> 'blind', the verbs <i>dabrmaveba</i> 'becoming blind, blinding someone' are derived.</li> <li>From the adjective -<i>lamazi</i>- 'beautiful', the verb <i>galamazeba</i> 'becoming beautiful' is derived.</li></ul> <h3>Words that begin with multiple consonants</h3> <p>In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This is because syllables in the language often begin with two consonants. Recordings are available on the relevant Wiktionary entries, linked to below. </p> <ul><li>Some examples of words that begin with two consonants are: <ul><li>წყალი (<i>ts’q’ali</i>), 'water'</li> <li>სწორი (<i>sts’ori</i>), 'correct'</li> <li>რძე (<i>rdze</i>), 'milk'</li> <li>თმა (<i>tma</i>), 'hair'</li> <li>მთა (<i>mta</i>), 'mountain'</li> <li>ცხენი (<i>tskheni</i>), 'horse'</li></ul></li> <li>Many words begin with three contiguous consonants: <ul><li>თქვენ (<i>tkven</i>), 'you (pl.)'</li> <li>მწვანე (<i>mts’vane</i>), 'green'</li> <li>ცხვირი (<i>tskhviri</i>), 'nose'</li> <li>ტკბილი (<i>t’k’bili</i>), 'sweet'</li> <li>მტკივნეული (<i>mt’k’ivneuli</i>), 'painful'</li> <li>ჩრდილოეთი (<i>chrdiloeti</i>), 'north'</li></ul></li> <li>A few words in Georgian that begin with four contiguous consonants. Examples are: <ul><li>მკვლელი (<i>mk’vleli</i>), 'murderer'</li> <li>მკვდარი (<i>mk’vdari</i>), 'dead'</li> <li>მთვრალი (<i>mtvrali</i>), 'drunk'</li> <li>მწკრივი (<i>mts’k’rivi</i>), 'row, <a href="/facts/Screeve/PJp7XIdh">screeve</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Some extreme cases also exist in Georgian. For example, the following word begins with six contiguous consonants: <ul><li>მწვრთნელი (<i>mts’vrtneli</i>), 'trainer'</li></ul></li> <li>While the following word begins with seven: <ul><li>გვწვრთნი (<i>gvts’vrtni</i>), 'you train us'</li></ul></li> <li>And the following words begin with eight: <ul><li>გვფრცქვნი (<i>gvprtskvni</i>), 'you peel us'</li> <li>გვბრდღვნი (<i>gvbrdghvni</i>), 'you tear us'</li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="sample-text">Sample text</h2> <p>Article 1 of the <a href="/facts/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights/8hsauJsB">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th><a href="/facts/Georgian_alphabet/43Afaqmj">Georgian alphabet</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Georgian/pHmsMvEX">Latin alphabet</a></th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">International Phonetic Alphabet</a></th><th>English translation</th></tr><tr><td>ყველა ადამიანი იბადება თავისუფალი და თანასწორი თავისი ღირსებითა და უფლებებით. მათ მინიჭებული აქვთ გონება და სინდისი და ერთმანეთის მიმართ უნდა იქცეოდნენ ძმობის სულისკვეთებით.</td><td>Qvela adamiani ibadeba tavisupali da tanasc’ori tavisi ghirsebita da uplebebit. Mat minich’ebuli akvt goneba da sindisi da ertmanetis mimart unda iktseodnen dzmobis sulisk’vetebit.</td><td>[qʼʷe̞ɫä‿ädämiäni‿ibäde̞bä tʰäβisupʰäli d̥ä tʰänäst͡sʼo̞ɾi tʰäβisi ʁiɾse̞bitʰä d̥ä‿upʰle̞be̞bitʰ ‖ mätʰ minit͡ʃ’e̞buli‿äkʰʷtʰ ɡ̊o̞ne̞bä d̥ä sindisi d̥ä‿e̞ɾtʰmäne̞tʰis mimäɾtʰ undä‿ikʰt͡sʰe̞o̞dne̞n d͡zmo̞bis sulisk’ʷe̞tʰe̞bitʰ ‖]</td><td>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Old_Georgian/dS2q251Q">Old Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_dialects/K4u5mFCQ">Georgian dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_alphabet/43Afaqmj">Georgian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_calligraphy/55VfAPKx">Georgian calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_calendar/Kt8uYphC">Georgian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_grammar/sNXssRR4">Georgian grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_numerals/gjk9JTE9">Georgian numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Georgian_profanity/TKsGANGt">Georgian profanity</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>Abuladze, Lia; Ludden, Andreas (2011). <i>Lehrbuch der georgischen Sprache</i> [Textbook of the Georgian language]. Second edition. Hamburg: Buske, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-87548-620-9 (in German).</li> <li>Zaza Aleksidze. <i>Epistoleta Tsigni</i>, Tbilisi, 1968, 150 pp (in Georgian)</li> <li>Aronson, Howard I. (1990), <i>Georgian: a reading grammar</i> (second ed.), Columbus, OH: Slavica</li> <li>Butskhrikidze, Marika (2002). <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-consonant-phonotactics-of-Georgian-Butskhrikidze/afc8d8e1541b130db3f375d8a2f38d8997187057">The consonant phonotactics of Georgian</a></li> <li>Canepari, Luciano (2007), <i>Natural phonetics and tonetics: Articulatory, auditory, & functional</i>, München: Lincom Europa</li> <li>Fähnrich, Heinz (2013). <i>Die ältesten georgischen Inschriften</i> [The oldest Georgian inscriptions]. Leiden: Brill, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-24921-9 (in German).</li> <li><a href="/facts/Farshid_Delshad/kAX0D1lR">Farshid Delshad</a>. <i>Georgica et Irano-Semitica</i> Studies on Iranian, Semitic and Georgian Linguistics, Wiesbaden 2010 (in German, English, Russian and Georgian summary)</li> <li>"Great discovery" (about the expedition of Academician Levan Chilashvili).- Newspaper <i>Kviris Palitra</i>, Tbilisi, April 21–27, 2003 (in Georgian)</li> <li>Hewitt, Brian G. (1987), <i>The typology of subordination in Georgian and Abkhaz</i>, Berlin: De Gruyter</li> <li>Hewitt, B. G. (1995), <i>Georgian: a structural reference grammar</i>, Amsterdam: John Benjamins</li> <li>Hewitt, B. G. (1996), <i>Georgian: a Learner's Grammar</i>, London: Routledge</li> <li>Hiller, P. J. (1994). <i>Georgian: The Kartvelian Literary Language</i>. Pontypridd, Wales: Language Information Centre.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Pavle_Ingorokva/PHfImKJT">Pavle Ingorokva</a>. Georgian inscriptions of antique.- Bulletin of ENIMK, vol. X, Tbilisi, 1941, pp. 411–427 (in Georgian)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ivane_Javakhishvili/GCrtUTLx">Ivane Javakhishvili</a>. <i>Georgian Paleography</i>, Tbilisi, 1949, 500 pp (in Georgian)</li> <li>Jun, Sun-Ah; Vicenik, Chad; Lofstedt, Ingvar (2007), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120616101948/http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/grads/lofstedt/Georgian-intonation-WPP-106.pdf">"Intonational Phonology of Georgian"</a> (PDF), <i>UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics</i> (106): 41–57, archived from <a href="http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/grads/lofstedt/Georgian-intonation-WPP-106.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2012-06-16</li> <li>Kiziria, Dodona (2009), <i>Beginner's Georgian with 2 Audio CDs</i>, New York: Hippocrene, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7818-1230-6</li> <li>Korneli Danelia, Zurab Sarjveladze. <i>Questions of Georgian Paleography</i>, Tbilisi, 1997, 150 pp (in Georgian, English summary)</li> <li>Kraveishvili, M. & Nakhutsrishvili, G. (1972), <i>Teach Yourself Georgian for English Speaking Georgians</i>, Tbilisi: The Georgian Society for Cultural Relations with Compatriots Abroad{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</li> <li>Elene Machavariani. <i>The graphical basis of the Georgian Alphabet</i>, Tbilisi, 1982, 107 pp (in Georgian, French summary)</li> <li>Price, Glanville (1998), <i>An Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe</i>, Blackwell</li> <li>Putkaradze, Tariel; Mikautadze, Maia (2014), <i>Phonetics of the Georgian literary language</i>, Tbilisi{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li> <li>Ramaz Pataridze. <i>The Georgian Asomtavruli</i>, Tbilisi, 1980, 600 pp. (in Georgian).</li> <li>Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf">"Standard Georgian"</a> (PDF), <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 36 (2): 255–264, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002659">10.1017/S0025100306002659</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53481687">53481687</a></li> <li>Skopeteas, Stavros; Féry, Caroline; Asatiani, Rusudan (2009), <i>Word order and intonation in Georgian</i>, University of Potsdam</li> <li>Testelets, Yakov G. (2020), "Kartvelian (South Caucasian) Languages", in Polinsky, Maria (ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus</i>, pp. 491–528</li> <li>Vicenik, Chad (2010), <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/890293">"An acoustic study of Georgian stop consonants"</a>, <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 40 (1): 59–92, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990302">10.1017/s0025100309990302</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143120834">143120834</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <i>Georgian edition</i> of <a href="/facts/Wikipedia/La2xLBFt">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia <a href="/facts/Wikisource/TrMdylNf">Wikisource</a> has the text of an 1879 <i><a href="/facts/American_Cyclop%25C3%25A6dia/szBM6Gxy">American Cyclopædia</a></i> article about <i>Georgian language</i>. <ul><li><a href="/facts/Matthew_Dryer/l1rD9TSV">Dryer, Matthew S.</a>; <a href="/facts/Martin_Haspelmath/vcLq9CWS">Haspelmath, Martin</a>, eds. (2013). <a href="http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_geo">"Georgian language"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures/tr1XE2nG">World Atlas of Language Structures</a> Online</i>. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</li> <li><a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=geo">The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Georgian language</a></li></ul> <h3>Grammars</h3> <ul><li><a href="http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/stand_alone_georgian.pdf">Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)</a></li> <li><a href="http://learn101.org/georgian.php">Georgian Grammar</a></li></ul> <h3>Dictionaries</h3> <ul><li><a href="http://www.translate.ge">Georgian English, English Georgian online dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="http://czudovo.info/list.php?what=1&ln=ka&in=from_en">English-Georgian, German-Georgian and Russian-Georgian dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070122120120/http://www.georgianweb.com/language/dictionary/index.html">English-Georgian HTML Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Georgian_Swadesh_list">Georgian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words</a> (from Wiktionary's <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://lingua.ge/verbs-all/">Georgian Verb Conjugator/Dictionary</a></li></ul> <h3>Software</h3> <ul><li><a href="http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/unicode/tituut.asp">Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X</a></li> <li><a href="https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/addon/10573">A keyboard for typing Georgian characters for firefox</a>[<i>permanent dead link</i>]</li> <li><a href="https://apps.apple.com/us/app/learn-georgian-alphabet-now/id1182898652">Learn Georgian Alphabet Now app</a> Gives the name, pronunciation of each letter, and example words. Shows the stroke order of each letter. Permits drawing practice and has a quiz to learn the letters.</li></ul> <h3>Literature and culture</h3> <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227084408/http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/">About Georgia – Language and Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020817/http://www.kartvfund.org.ge/page3.html">Summer School of Georgian at Tbilisi State University</a></li> <li><a href="http://georgian-language.com/learn_georgian/write.php">Learn how to write Georgian hand-written letters correctly</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Central Intelligence Agency. (2016). "Georgia". In The World Factbook. Archived 2021-02-04 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/" target="_blank">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Hiller (1994:1) - Hiller, P. J. (1994). Georgian: The Kartvelian Literary Language. Pontypridd, Wales: Language Information Centre. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Georgian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) <a href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kat" target="_blank">https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kat</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Hiller (1994:2) - Hiller, P. J. (1994). Georgian: The Kartvelian Literary Language. Pontypridd, Wales: Language Information Centre. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Georgian DialectsArchived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, The ARMAZI project. Retrieved on March 28, 2007 <a href="http://www.armazi.demon.co.uk/georgian/unicode/georgian_dialects.htm" target="_blank">http://www.armazi.demon.co.uk/georgian/unicode/georgian_dialects.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Manana Kock Kobaidze (2004-02-11) From the history of Standard Georgian Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://webzone.imer.mah.se/projects/georgianV04/DEMO/Lect04/StandGe.html" target="_blank">http://webzone.imer.mah.se/projects/georgianV04/DEMO/Lect04/StandGe.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Tuite, Kevin, "Early Georgian", pp. 145–6, in: Woodard, Roger D. (2008), The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-68496-X <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Tuite" target="_blank">/wiki/Kevin_Tuite</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Braund, David (1994), Georgia in Antiquity; a History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 B.C. – A.D. 562, p. 216. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-814473-3 <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/Oxford_University_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Tuite, Kevin, "Early Georgian", pp. 145–6, in: Woodard, Roger D. (2008), The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-68496-X <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Tuite" target="_blank">/wiki/Kevin_Tuite</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Georgian and Italian Dictionary". World Digital Library. Retrieved 3 July 2013. <a href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/321/" target="_blank">http://www.wdl.org/en/item/321/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Shosted & Chikovani (2006:263) - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659, S2CID 53481687 <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Native Phonetic Inventory: georgian". gmu.edu. George Mason University. Retrieved 24 August 2019. <a href="http://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=23" target="_blank">http://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=23</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Shosted & Chikovani (2006:256) - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659, S2CID 53481687 <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Shosted & Chikovani (2006:261) - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659, S2CID 53481687 <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Aronson (1990:17–18) - Aronson, Howard I. (1990), Georgian: a reading grammar (second ed.), Columbus, OH: Slavica <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Hewitt (1995:21) - Hewitt, B. G. (1995), Georgian: a structural reference grammar, Amsterdam: John Benjamins <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Shosted & Chikovani (2006:261) - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659, S2CID 53481687 <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Shosted & Chikovani (2006:261) - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659, S2CID 53481687 <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Aronson (1990:15) - Aronson, Howard I. (1990), Georgian: a reading grammar (second ed.), Columbus, OH: Slavica <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Aronson (1990:15) - Aronson, Howard I. (1990), Georgian: a reading grammar (second ed.), Columbus, OH: Slavica <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Hewitt (1995:21) - Hewitt, B. G. (1995), Georgian: a structural reference grammar, Amsterdam: John Benjamins <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>/r/ drop in Colloquial Georgian <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312661766_r_drop_in_Colloquial_Georgian" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312661766_r_drop_in_Colloquial_Georgian</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Gamq'relidze, Nana; K'ot'et'ishvili, Shota; Lezhava, Ivane; Lortkipanidze, Luiza; Javakhidze, L (2006). ქართული ნორმატიული და დიალექტური მეტყველების ფონეტიკური ანალიზი [A phonetic analysis of Georgian normative and dialectal speech] (PDF) (in Georgian). 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