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Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
Symbols for constants, special functions

Greek letters play a vital role in mathematics, science, and engineering as symbols for constants, special functions, and variables. Capital and lowercase forms represent distinct entities, though letters resembling Latin letters like A, B, E, and others are rarely used. Some font variants distinguish particular letters such as ε/ϵ and π/ϖ, while the archaic digamma occasionally appears. Additionally, the Bayer designation employs Greek letters like α for naming stars by brightness order within constellations. In mathematical finance, the Greeks represent variables indicating investment risk.

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Typography

Some common conventions:

The Greek letter forms used in mathematics are often different from those used in Greek-language text: they are designed to be used in isolation, not connected to other letters, and some use variant forms which are not normally used in current Greek typography.

The OpenType font format has the feature tag "mgrk" ("Mathematical Greek") to identify a glyph as representing a Greek letter to be used in mathematical (as opposed to Greek language) contexts.

The table below shows a comparison of Greek letters rendered in TeX and HTML. The font used in the TeX rendering is an italic style. This is in line with the convention that variables should be italicized. As Greek letters are more often than not used as variables in mathematical formulas, a Greek letter appearing similar to the TeX rendering is more likely to be encountered in works involving mathematics.

Greek letters in HTML and TeX (α–μ)
NameTeXHTML
Alpha A α {\displaystyle \mathrm {A} \,\alpha } Α α
Beta B β {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \,\beta } Β β
Gamma Γ γ {\displaystyle \Gamma \,\gamma } Γ γ
Delta Δ δ {\displaystyle \Delta \,\delta } Δ δ
Epsilon E ϵ ε {\displaystyle \mathrm {E} \,\epsilon \,\varepsilon } Ε ϵ ε
Digamma Ϝ ϝ {\displaystyle \mathrm {\Digamma} \,\digamma } Ϝ ϝ
Zeta Z ζ {\displaystyle \mathrm {Z} \,\zeta } Ζ ζ
Eta H η {\displaystyle \mathrm {H} \,\eta } Η η
Theta Θ θ ϑ {\displaystyle \Theta \,\theta \,\vartheta } Θ θ ϑ
Iota I ι {\displaystyle \mathrm {I} \,\iota } Ι ι
Kappa K κ ϰ {\displaystyle \mathrm {K} \,\kappa \,\varkappa } Κ κ ϰ
Lambda Λ λ {\displaystyle \Lambda \,\lambda } Λ λ
Mu M μ {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \,\mu } Μ μ
Greek letters in HTML and TeX (ν–ω)
NameTeXHTML
Nu N ν {\displaystyle \mathrm {N} \,\nu } Ν ν
Xi Ξ ξ {\displaystyle \Xi \,\xi } Ξ ξ
Omicron O o {\displaystyle \mathrm {O} \,o} Ο ο
Pi Π π ϖ {\displaystyle \Pi \,\pi \,\varpi } Π π ϖ
Rho P ρ ϱ {\displaystyle \mathrm {P} \,\rho \,\varrho } Ρ ρ ϱ
Sigma Σ σ ς {\displaystyle \Sigma \,\sigma \,\varsigma } Σ σ ς
Tau T τ {\displaystyle \mathrm {T} \,\tau } Τ τ
Upsilon Υ υ {\displaystyle \Upsilon \,\upsilon } Υ υ
Phi Φ ϕ φ {\displaystyle \Phi \,\phi \,\varphi } Φ ϕ φ
Chi X χ {\displaystyle \mathrm {X} \,\chi } Χ χ
Psi Ψ ψ {\displaystyle \Psi \,\psi } Ψ ψ
Omega Ω ω {\displaystyle \Omega \,\omega } Ω ω
Greek letters with typographical variations
NameGreek LetterBoldItalicBold ItalicSans-Serif BoldSans-Serif Bold ItalicAPLDouble struck boldUnicode variants or similar
AlphaΑ α𝚨 𝛂𝛢 𝛼𝜜 𝜶𝝖 𝝰𝞐 𝞪⍺ ⍶
BetaΒ β ϐ ᵝ ᵦ𝚩 𝛃𝛣 𝛽𝜝 𝜷𝝗 𝝱𝞑 𝞫
GammaΓ γ ᴦ ᵞ ᵧ𝚪 𝛄𝛤 𝛾𝜞 𝜸𝝘 𝝲𝞒 𝞬ℾ ℽ
DeltaΔ δ ᵟ𝚫 𝛅𝛥 𝛿𝜟 𝜹𝝙 𝝳𝞓 𝞭U+2206 ∆ INCREMENT, U+2207 ∇ NABLA
EpsilonΕ ε ϵ ϶𝚬 𝛆 𝛜𝛦 𝜀 𝜖𝜠 𝜺 𝝐𝝚 𝝴 𝞊𝞔 𝞮 𝟄⍷U+2208 ∈ ELEMENT OF–U+220D ∍ SMALL CONTAINS AS MEMBER
ZetaΖ ζ𝚭 𝛇𝛧 𝜁𝜡 𝜻𝝛 𝝵𝞕 𝞯
EtaΗ η Ͱ ͱ𝚮 𝛈𝛨 𝜂𝜢 𝜼𝝜 𝝶𝞖 𝞰
ThetaΘ θ ϑ ϴ ᶿ𝚯 𝛉 𝚹 𝛝𝛩 𝜃 𝛳 𝜗𝜣 𝜽 𝜭 𝝑𝝝 𝝷 𝚹 𝞋𝞗 𝞱 𝜭 𝟅
IotaΙ ι ᶥ ℩𝚰 𝛊𝛪 𝜄𝜤 𝜾𝝞 𝝸𝞘 𝞲⍳ ⍸
KappaΚ κ ϰ𝚱 𝛋 𝛞𝛫 𝜅 𝜘𝜥 𝜿 𝝒𝝟 𝝹 𝞌𝞙 𝞳 𝟆
LambdaΛ λ ᴧ𝚲 𝛌𝛬 𝜆𝜦 𝝀𝝠 𝝺𝞚 𝞴
MuΜ μ𝚳 𝛍𝛭 𝜇𝜧 𝝁𝝡 𝝻𝞛 𝞵
NuΝ ν𝚴 𝛎𝛮 𝜈𝜨 𝝂𝝢 𝝼𝞜 𝞶
XiΞ ξ𝚵 𝛏𝛯 𝜉𝜩 𝝃𝝣 𝝽𝞝 𝞷
OmicronΟ ο𝚶 𝛐𝛰 𝜊𝜪 𝝄𝝤 𝝾𝞞 𝞸
PiΠ π ϖ ᴨ𝚷 𝛑 𝛡𝛱 𝜋 𝜛𝜫 𝝅 𝝕𝝥 𝝿 𝞏𝞟 𝞹 𝟉ℿ ℼU+220F ∏ N-ARY PRODUCT, U+2210 ∐ N-ARY COPRODUCT
RhoΡ ρ Ῥ ῥ ῤ ϱ ϼ ᴩ ᵨ ☧𝚸 𝛒 𝛠𝛲 𝜌 𝜚𝜬 𝝆 𝝔𝝦 𝞀 𝞎𝞠 𝞺 𝟈⍴
SigmaΣ σ ς Ϲ ϲ Ͻ ͻ Ͼ ͼ Ͽ ͽ𝚺 𝛔 𝛓𝛴 𝜎 𝜍𝜮 𝝈 𝝇𝝨 𝞂 𝞁𝞢 𝞼 𝞻⅀U+2211 ∑ N-ARY SUMMATION
TauΤ τ𝚻 𝛕𝛵 𝜏𝜯 𝝉𝝩 𝞃𝞣 𝞽
UpsilonΥ υ ϒ𝚼 𝛖𝛶 𝜐𝜰 𝝊𝝪 𝞄𝞤 𝞾
PhiΦ φ ϕ𝚽 𝛗 𝛟𝛷 𝜑 𝜙𝜱 𝝋 𝝓𝝫 𝞅 𝞍𝞥 𝞿 𝟇
ChiΧ χᵡᵪ☧𝚾 𝛘𝛸 𝜒𝜲 𝝌𝝬 𝞆𝞦 𝟀
PsiΨ ψ ᴪ𝚿 𝛙𝛹 𝜓𝜳 𝝍𝝭 𝞇𝞧 𝟁
OmegaΩ ω ꭥ𝛀 𝛚𝛺 𝜔𝜴 𝝎𝝮 𝞈𝞨 𝟂⍵ ⍹U+2126 Ω OHM SIGN, U+2127 ℧ INVERTED OHM SIGN

Concepts represented by a Greek letter

Αα (alpha)

See also: Alpha (disambiguation)

Ββ (beta)

See also: Beta (disambiguation)

Γγ (gamma)

See also: Gamma (disambiguation)

Δδ (delta)

See also: Delta (disambiguation)

Εε (epsilon)

See also: Epsilon (disambiguation)

Ϝϝ (digamma)

See also: Digamma

  • Ϝ is sometimes used to represent the digamma function, though the Latin letter F (which is nearly identical) is usually substituted.
  • A hypothetical particle Ϝ speculated to be implicated in the 750 GeV diphoton excess, now known to be simply a statistical anomaly

Ζζ (zeta)

See also: Zeta (disambiguation)

Ηη (eta)

See also: Eta (disambiguation)

Θθ (theta)

See also: Theta (disambiguation)

Ιι (iota)

See also: Iota (disambiguation)

Κκ (kappa)

See also: Kappa (disambiguation)

Λλ (lambda)

See also: Lambda (disambiguation)

Μμ (mu)

See also: Mu (disambiguation)

Νν (nu)

See also: Nu (disambiguation)

Ξξ (xi)

See also: Xi (disambiguation)

Οο (omicron)

See also: Omicron (disambiguation)

Ππ (pi)

See also: Pi (disambiguation)

Ρρ (rho)

See also: Rho (disambiguation)

Σσς (sigma)

See also: Sigma (disambiguation)

Ττ (tau)

See also: Tau (disambiguation)

ϒυ (upsilon)

See also: Upsilon (disambiguation)

  • Υ {\displaystyle \Upsilon } (U+03D2) represents:

Φφ (phi)

See also: Phi (disambiguation)

Note: The empty set symbol ∅ looks similar, but is unrelated to the Greek letter.

Χχ (chi)

See also: Chi (disambiguation)

Ψψ (psi)

See also: Psi (disambiguation)

Ωω (omega)

See also: Omega (disambiguation)

See also

References

  1. Lindenmayer, David. (2005). Practical conservation biology. Burgman, Mark A. Collingwood, Vic.: CSIRO Pub. p. 404. ISBN 0-643-09310-9. OCLC 65216357. These parameters are related by the expression:… where E is effect size, n is sample size, α is the type I error rate and σ is the standard deviation of the variability of the data 0-643-09310-9 ↩

  2. "fine-structure constant". physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 2025-02-10. https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?eqalph%7Csearch_for=fine ↩

  3. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  4. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne, eds. (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam ; Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 793. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. OCLC 156811865. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  5. Lamond, Joseph F.; Pielert, J. H., eds. (2006). Significance of tests and properties of concrete and concrete-making materials. STP (Rev. ed.). Philadelphia, PA: ASTM. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-8031-3367-9. OCLC 69865403. Thermal diffusivity is defined numerically as thermal conductivity divided by the product of specific heat and density, or α= k/ (CxP) 978-0-8031-3367-9 ↩

  6. Burns, M. Shane (2022). A practical guide to observational astronomy (First ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-367-76863-8. The two angles that specify the location of a point on the celestial sphere are called the right ascension α and the declination δ 978-0-367-76863-8 ↩

  7. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. The primary designation system for bright stars, called Bayer designations… The Greek letters are assigned in order (α,β, γ,δ etc.) according to brightness. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  8. Bhandari, Pritha (2021-01-18). "Type I & Type II Errors | Differences, Examples, Visualizations". Scribbr. Retrieved 2025-01-22. The probability of making a Type I error is the significance level, or alpha (α), while the probability of making a Type II error is beta (β). https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/type-i-and-type-ii-errors/ ↩

  9. Languis, M. L.; Buffer, James J.; Martin, Daniel; Naour, Paul J. (2011). Cognitive Science (RLE Edu E): Contributions to Educational Practice. Routledge Library Editions: Education. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-415-68351-7. Vieth (1982) established that cognition could be quantified by summing the value of alpha plus beta brain waves. 978-0-415-68351-7 ↩

  10. Bowen, Alan C.; Rochberg, Francesca, eds. (2020). Hellenistic astronomy: the science in its contexts. Brill's companions in classical studies. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-90-04-24336-1. Celestial longitude (λ) is measured eastward from the vernal equinox along the zodiacal circle, and celestial latitude (β) is the angular distance of the arc dropped perpendicularly from the body to the zodiacal circle. 978-90-04-24336-1 ↩

  11. Freidberg, Jeffrey P. (2014). Ideal MHD (1st ed.). West Nyack: Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-107-00625-6. The quantity β is a global plasma parameter whose value is critical for a fusion reactor... Qualitatively, β measures the ratio plasma pressure to magnetic pressure: 978-1-107-00625-6 ↩

  12. Volchenkov, Dimitri (2022). Mathematical Methods in Modern Complexity Science. Nonlinear Systems and Complexity Series. José António Tenreiro Machado. Cham: Springer International Publishing AG. p. 36. ISBN 978-3-030-79411-8. We defined β as the ratio v/c, where v the is the modulus of the vector velocity v. 978-3-030-79411-8 ↩

  13. Zhang, Keqian; Li, Dejie, eds. (2008). Electromagnetic Theory for Microwaves and Optoelectronics. SpringerLink Bücher (2nd ed.). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 82. ISBN 978-3-540-74295-1. The reflection coefficient Γis real when medium 1 and medium 2 are both lossless media,… 978-3-540-74295-1 ↩

  14. Weisstein, Eric W. "Gamma Function". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-22. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/GammaFunction.html ↩

  15. Hogg, Robert V.; Klugman, Stuart A. (2009). Loss Distributions. Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-471-87929-9. 978-0-471-87929-9 ↩

  16. Baumann, Gerd (2005). Mathematica for theoretical physics (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 731. ISBN 978-0-387-01674-0. 978-0-387-01674-0 ↩

  17. Kahle, Reinhard; Rathjen, Michael (2020). The legacy of Kurt Schütte. Cham: Springer. p. 41. ISBN 978-3-030-49423-0. The Veblen approach was quite sufficient even for the ordinal, now known as the Feferman–Schütte ordinal, Γ0 for predictive analysis 978-3-030-49423-0 ↩

  18. "DLMF: §5.2 Definitions ‣ Properties ‣ Chapter 5 Gamma Function". dlmf.nist.gov. Retrieved 2025-01-31. https://dlmf.nist.gov/5.2#E3 ↩

  19. Fayngold, Moses (2008). Special relativity and how it works. Physics textbook. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. p. 32. ISBN 978-3-527-40607-4. Because we will come across this coefficient quite often, we will give it a special name, the Lorentz factor, and stick to our symbol γ(V),... 978-3-527-40607-4 ↩

  20. Weisstein, Eric W. "Kronecker Delta". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-23. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/KroneckerDelta.html ↩

  21. Weisstein, Eric W. "Feigenbaum Constant". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-23. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/FeigenbaumConstant.html ↩

  22. Weisstein, Eric W. "Delta Function". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-23. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/DeltaFunction.html ↩

  23. Katzung & Trevor's Pharmacology Examination & Board Review (9th Edition.). Anthony J. Trevor, Bertram G. Katzung, Susan B. Masters ISBN 978-0-07-170155-6. B. Opioid Peptides + 268 pp. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  24. Burns, M. Shane (2022). A practical guide to observational astronomy (First ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-367-76863-8. The two angles that specify the location of a point on the celestial sphere are called the right ascension α and the declination δ 978-0-367-76863-8 ↩

  25. Kutner, Michael H.; Nachtsheim, Christopher J.; Neter, John; Li, William (2005). Applied Linear Statistical Models (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. xxviii, 1396. ISBN 0-07-310874-X. 0-07-310874-X ↩

  26. Golub, Gene; Charles F. Van Loan (1996). Matrix Computations – Third Edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0-8018-5413-X. 0-8018-5413-X ↩

  27. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne, eds. (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam ; Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. OCLC 156811865. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  28. "Vacuum electric permittivity". physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 2025-02-10. https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?ep0%7Csearch_for=universal_in! ↩

  29. Montenari, Michael, ed. (2018). Cyclostratigraphy and astrochronology. Stratigraphy and Timescales (1st ed.). London San Diego, Calif. Cambridge, Mass. Oxford: Academic Press, an imprint of Elsevier. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-12-815098-6. The Earth's orbital obliquity or axial tilt (ε) is the angle between the Earth's equatorial plane and its orbital plane, 978-0-12-815098-6 ↩

  30. Free, Rhona C. (2010). 21st century economics: a reference handbook. Thousand Oaks (Calif.): Sage. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-4129-6142-4. 978-1-4129-6142-4 ↩

  31. Wilkie, Jacqueline; Johnson, Michael; Katebi, Reza (2002). Control engineering: an introductory course. Basingstoke: Palgrave. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-333-77129-7. We shall refer to ζ as the damping ratio throughout this text. 978-0-333-77129-7 ↩

  32. Hunter, Robert J. (1988). Zeta potential in colloid science: principles and applications (New paperback ed.). London San Diego: Academic Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-12-361961-7. It is also possible to correlate the ζ-potential with the sedimentation behaviour of colloidal systems and with the flotation behaviour of mineral ores. 978-0-12-361961-7 ↩

  33. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne, eds. (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam ; Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. OCLC 156811865. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  34. Harada, Kōichirō (2010). "Moonshine" of finite groups. EMS series of lectures in mathematics. Zürich: European Mathematical Society. p. 17. ISBN 978-3-03719-090-6. 978-3-03719-090-6 ↩

  35. Struchtrup, Henning (2024). Thermodynamics and energy conversion (Second ed.). Cham: Springer. pp. 164–165. ISBN 978-3-031-60555-0. 978-3-031-60555-0 ↩

  36. Rybicki, George B.; Lightman, Alan P. (1979). Radiative processes in astrophysics. A Wiley-Interscience publication. New York: Wiley. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-471-04815-2. 978-0-471-04815-2 ↩

  37. Weisstein, Eric W. "Lambda Calculus". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-22. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LambdaCalculus.html ↩

  38. Kubat, Miroslav (2021). An introduction to machine learning (Third ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. p. 129. ISBN 978-3-030-81934-7. When describing backpropagation of error, we assumed a constant learning rate, η . 978-3-030-81934-7 ↩

  39. Weisstein, Eric W. "Kappa Curve". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-06. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/KappaCurve.html ↩

  40. Weisstein, Eric W. "Vertex Connectivity". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-06. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/VertexConnectivity.html ↩

  41. Weisstein, Eric W. "Curvature". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-06. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Curvature.html ↩

  42. "Thermal Conductivity - Definition and Detailed Explanation". BYJUS. Retrieved 2025-02-06. It is generally denoted by the symbol 'k' but can also be denoted by 'λ' and 'κ'. https://byjus.com/chemistry/thermal-conductivity/ ↩

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  47. Bowen, Alan C.; Rochberg, Francesca, eds. (2020). Hellenistic astronomy: the science in its contexts. Brill's companions in classical studies. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-90-04-24336-1. Celestial longitude (λ) is measured eastward from the vernal equinox along the zodiacal circle, and celestial latitude (β) is the angular distance of the arc dropped perpendicularly from the body to the zodiacal circle. 978-90-04-24336-1 ↩

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  52. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne, eds. (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam ; Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. OCLC 156811865. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  53. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne, eds. (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam ; Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. OCLC 156811865. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  54. Grossman, Nathaniel (1996). The Sheer Joy of Celestial Mechanics. Boston, MA: Birkhäuser Boston. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-8176-3832-0. Introduce variables ζ and η related to the true anomaly f and the eccentric anomaly E by… 978-0-8176-3832-0 ↩

  55. Weisstein, Eric W. "Pomega -- from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics". scienceworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2022-09-06. https://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Pomega.html ↩

  56. Outline for Weeks 14&15, Astronomy 225 Spring 2008 Archived 2010-06-15 at the Wayback Machine http://odin.physastro.mnsu.edu/~eskridge/astr225/week14.html ↩

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  66. Weisstein, Eric W. "Chromatic Number". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-09. The chromatic number of a graph G is most commonly denoted χ (G) (e.g., Skiena 1990, West 2000, Godsil and Royle 2001, Pemmaraju and Skiena 2003),... https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ChromaticNumber.html ↩

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  72. Weisstein, Eric W. "Polygamma Function". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-08. A special function mostly commonly denoted ψ_n(z), ψ^((n))(z), or F_n(z-1)... https://mathworld.wolfram.com/PolygammaFunction.html ↩

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  75. Rein, Alan (2020-07-28). "The heart of the HIV RNA packaging signal?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (33): 19621–19623. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11719621R. doi:10.1073/pnas.2013378117. PMC 7443930. PMID 32723818. vRNA is selectively packaged because it contains a "packaging signal" or "ψ" [also designated the "core encapsidation signal" (2)]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7443930 ↩

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  80. Weisstein, Eric W. "Solid Angle". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-07. The solid angle Ω subtended by a surface S is defined as the surface area Ω of a unit sphere covered by the surface's projection onto the sphere. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/SolidAngle.html ↩

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  82. "Density Parameter | COSMOS". astronomy.swin.edu.au. Retrieved 2025-02-07. https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/D/Density+Parameter ↩

  83. Weisstein, Eric W. "Ordinal Number". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-06. The first transfinite ordinal, denoted ω ... https://mathworld.wolfram.com/OrdinalNumber.html ↩

  84. Rabinowitz, Harold; Vogel, Suzanne, eds. (2009). The manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers (1st ed.). Amsterdam ; Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-12-373980-3. OCLC 156811865. 978-0-12-373980-3 ↩

  85. Weisstein, Eric W. "Distinct Prime Factors". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-06. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/DistinctPrimeFactors.html ↩

  86. Weisstein, Eric W. "Clique". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-02-07. A clique of a graph G is a complete subgraph of G, and the clique of largest possible size is referred to as a maximum clique (which has size known as the (upper) clique number ω(G)). https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Clique.html ↩