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Typographical variation

Some common conventions:

• Intensive quantities in physics are usually denoted with minusculeswhile extensive are denoted with capital letters.
• Most symbols are written in italics.
• Vectors can be denoted in boldface.
• Sets of numbers are typically bold or blackboard bold.

Aa

• A represents:
  • the first point of a triangle¹
  • the digit "ten" in hexadecimal² and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 11 or greater³
  • the unit ampere for electric current in physics⁴
  • the area of a figure⁵
  • the mass number or nucleon number of an element in chemistry⁶
  • the Helmholtz free energy of a closed thermodynamic system of constant pressure and temperature⁷
  • a vector potential, in electromagnetics it can refer to the magnetic vector potential⁸
  • with a subscript, an alternating group on that many objects
  • an Abelian group in abstract algebra
  • the Glaisher–Kinkelin constant⁹
  • atomic weight, denoted by Ar ¹⁰
  • work in classical mechanics¹¹
  • the pre-exponential factor¹² in the Arrhenius Equation¹³
  • electron affinity¹⁴
• A {\displaystyle \mathbb {A} } represents the algebraic numbers¹⁵ or affine space in algebraic geometry.
  • A blood type
  • A spectral type
• a represents:
  • the first side of a triangle (opposite point A)¹⁶
  • the scale factor of the expanding universe in cosmology¹⁷
  • the acceleration in mechanics equations¹⁸
  • the first constant in a linear equation
  • a constant in a polynomial
  • the unit are for area (100 m2)¹⁹
  • the unit prefix atto (10−18)²⁰
  • the first term in a sequence or series²¹
  • Reflectance

Bb

• B represents:
  • the digit "11" in hexadecimal²² and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 12 or greater²³
  • the second point of a triangle²⁴
  • a ball (also denoted by ℬ ( B {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}} ) or B {\displaystyle \mathbb {B} } )²⁵
  • a basis of a vector space or of a filter (both also denoted by ℬ ( B {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}} ))
  • in econometrics and time-series statistics it is often used for the backshift or lag operator, the formal parameter of the lag polynomial
  • the magnetic field, denoted B {\displaystyle {\textbf {B}}} or B → {\displaystyle {\vec {B}}}
• B with various subscripts represents several variations of Brun's constant and Betti numbers; it can also be used to mean the Bernoulli numbers.
  • B meson
  • A blood type
  • Boron
  • Buoyancy
  • Bulk modulus
  • Luminance
  • A spectral type
• b represents:
  • the second side of a triangle (opposite point B)
  • the impact parameter in nuclear scattering
  • the second constant in a linear equation
  • usually with an index, sometimes with an arrow over it, a basis vector
  • a breadth²⁶
  • the molality of a solution²⁷
  • Bottom quark
  • Barn (10−24 cm2)

Cc

• C represents:
  • the third point of a triangle
  • the digit "12" in hexadecimal and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 13 or greater
  • the unit coulomb of electrical charge²⁸
  • capacitance in electrical theory
  • with indices denoting the number of combinations, a binomial coefficient
  • together with a degree symbol (°), the Celsius measurement of temperature = °C²⁹
  • the circumference of a circle or other closed curve³⁰
  • with a subscript, a cycle on that many vertices
  • with a subscript, a cyclic group of that order
  • the complement of a set (lowercase c and the symbol ∁ are also used)
  • an arbitrary category
  • the number concentration³¹*
  • Carbon
  • Heat capacity
  • The C programming language
  • Cunningham correction factor
• C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } represents the set of complex numbers.
• A vertically elongated C with an integer subscript n sometimes denotes the n-th coefficient of a formal power series.
• c represents:
  • the unit prefix centi (10−2)³²
  • the amount concentration in chemistry³³
  • the speed of light in vacuum³⁴
  • the third side of a triangle (opposite corner C)
• Lowercase Fraktur c {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {c}}} denotes the cardinality of the set of real numbers (the "continuum"), or, equivalently, of the power set of natural numbers.
  • the third constant in a linear equation
  • a constant in a polynomial
  • Charm quark
  • Speed of sound
  • Specific heat capacity

Dd

• D represents
  • the digit "13" in hexadecimal and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 14 or greater
  • diffusion coefficient or diffusivity in dimensions of [distance2/time]
  • the differential operator in Euler's calculus notation
  • with a subscript, a dihedral group of that order or a dihedral group on a regular polygon of that many sides, depending on the convention chosen
  • dissociation energy³⁵
  • Dimension
  • Deuterium
  • Electric displacement
  • D meson
  • Density
• d represents
  • the differential operator
  • the unit day of time (86,400 s)
  • the difference in an arithmetic sequence
  • a metric operator/function
  • the diameter of a circle³⁶
  • the unit prefix deci (10−1)³⁷
  • a thickness³⁸
  • a distance³⁹
  • Down quark
  • Infinitesimal increment in calculus
  • Density

Ee

• E represents:
  • the digit "14" in hexadecimal and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 15 or greater
  • an exponent in decimal numbers. For example, 1.2E3 is 1.2×103 or 1200
  • the set of edges in a graph or matroid
  • the unit prefix exa (1018)⁴⁰
  • energy in physics⁴¹
  • electric field denoted E {\displaystyle {\textbf {E}}} or E → {\displaystyle {\vec {E}}}
  • electromotive force (denoted E {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}} and measured in volts), refers to voltage
  • an event (as in P(E), which reads "the probability P of event E occurring")
  • in statistics, the expected value of a random variable, sometimes as E {\displaystyle \mathbb {E} }
  • Ek represents kinetic energy⁴²
  • (Arrhenius) activation energy, denoted Ea or EA⁴³
  • ionization energy, denoted Ei⁴⁴
  • electron affinity, denoted Eea⁴⁵
  • dissociation energy, denoted Ed⁴⁶
• e represents:
  • Euler's number, a transcendental number equal to 2.71828182845... which is used as the base for natural logarithms
  • a vector of unit length, especially in the direction of one of the coordinates axes
  • the elementary charge in physics
  • an electron, usually denoted e− to distinguish against a positron e+
  • the eccentricity of a conic section
  • the identity element in a group
  • In a cartesian coordinate system, a unit vector in notations like ( e ^ x , e ^ y , e ^ z ) {\displaystyle (\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{x},\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{y},\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{z})} , or ( e ^ 1 , e ^ 2 , e ^ 3 ) {\displaystyle (\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{1},\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{2},\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{3})}

Ff

• F represents
  • the digit "15" in hexadecimal and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 16 or greater
  • the unit farad of electrical capacity⁴⁷
  • the Helmholtz free energy of a closed thermodynamic system of constant pressure and temperature
  • together with a degree symbol (°) represents the Fahrenheit measurement of temperature = °F
  • Fluorine
  • A spectral type
• F represents
  • force in mechanics equations⁴⁸
  • pFq is a hypergeometric series
  • the probability distribution function in statistics
  • a Fibonacci number
  • an arbitrary functor
  • a field
  • an event space sigma algebra as part of a probability space, often as F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}
• f represents:
  • the unit prefix femto (10−15)⁴⁹
• f represents:
  • the generic designation of a function
  • Friction

Gg

• G represents
  • an arbitrary graph, as in: G(V,E)
  • an arbitrary group
  • the unit prefix giga (109)⁵⁰
  • the Newtonian constant of gravitation⁵¹
  • the Einstein tensor
  • the Gibbs energy
  • the centroid of a triangle
  • Catalan's constant
  • weight measured in newtons⁵²
  • Green's function
  • a spectral type
• g represents:
  • the generic designation of a second function
  • the acceleration due to gravity on Earth
  • a unit of mass, the gramme
  • Gravitational field, denoted g
  • Metric tensor (general relativity)
  • Gluon

Hh

• H represents:
  • an arbitrary subgraph
  • an arbitrary subgroup
  • a Hilbert space
  • the unit henry of magnetic inductance⁵³
  • the homology and cohomology functor
  • the enthalpy
  • the (Shannon) entropy of information
  • the orthocenter of a triangle
  • a partial sum of the harmonic series
  • Auxiliary magnetic field, denoted H {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {H}}}
  • Hamiltonian in quantum mechanics
  • Hankel function
  • Heaviside step function
  • Higgs boson
  • Hydrogen
  • Set of quaternions
  • Hat matrix
• H0 is either the Hubble constant; or the Dimensionless Hubble parameter of (100 h km·s−1·Mpc−1, with h being the associated error.
• H {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } represents the quaternions (after William Rowan Hamilton).
• ΔH‡ represents the standard enthalpy of activation⁵⁴ in the Eyring equation.⁵⁵
• ℋ ( H {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}} ) represents the Hamiltonian in Hamiltonian mechanics.
• h represents:
  • the class number in algebraic number theory
  • a small increment in the argument of a function
  • the unit hour for time (3600 s)
  • the Planck constant (6.626 069(57)× 10−34 J·s)
  • the unit prefix hecto (102)⁵⁶
  • the generic designation of a third function
  • the altitude of a triangle
  • a height⁵⁷
  • Spherical Hankel function

Ii

• I represents:
  • the closed unit interval, which contains all real numbers from 0 to 1, inclusive
  • the identity matrix
  • the Irradiance
  • the moment of inertia⁵⁸
  • intensity in physics, typically the vector field I
  • Luminous intensity, typically Iv
  • the incenter of a triangle
  • the electric current⁵⁹
  • ionization energy, denoted I⁶⁰
• I represents:
  • the index of an indexed family
  • Iodine

• i represents:
  • the imaginary unit, a complex number that is the square root of −1
  • Imaginary quaternion unit
  • a subscript to denote the ith term (that is, a general term or index) in a sequence or list
  • the index to the elements of a vector, written as a subscript after the vector name
  • the index to the rows of a matrix, written as the first subscript after the matrix name
  • an index of summation using the sigma notation
  • the unit vector in Cartesian coordinates going in the x-direction, usually bold i

Jj

• J represents:
  • the unit joule of energy⁶¹
  • the current density in electromagnetism denoted J {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {J}}} ⁶²
  • the radiosity in thermal mechanics
  • the moment of inertia⁶³
  • Total angular momentum quantum number
  • Bessel function of the first kind
  • Impulse
• J represents:
  • the scheme of a diagram in category theory
• j represents:
  • the index to the columns of a matrix, written as the second subscript after the matrix name
  • in electrical engineering, the principal cube root of 1: − 1 2 + 1 2 i 3 {\displaystyle -{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{2}}i{\sqrt {3}}}
  • the unit vector in Cartesian coordinates going in the y-direction, usually bold j
  • Electrical current density
  • Spherical Bessel function of the first kind
  • Imaginary unit in electrical engineering (where i represents current)
  • Unit vector for the second imaginary dimension in the quaternion number system (bold j)

Kk

• K represents:
  • the temperature unit kelvin⁶⁴
  • the functors of K-theory
  • an unspecified (real) constant
  • a field in algebra
  • with a subscript, a complete graph on that many vertices
  • the area of a polygon
  • kinetic energy⁶⁵
  • Kaon
  • Potassium
  • Sectional curvature
  • A spectral type
• k represents
  • the unit prefix kilo- (103)⁶⁶
  • the Boltzmann constant, often represented as kB to avoid confusion
  • the angular wavenumber of the wave equation, the magnitude of the wave vector k
  • an integer, e.g. a dummy variable in summations, or an index of a matrix
  • an unspecified (real) constant
  • the spring constant of Hooke's law
  • the spacetime curvature from the Friedmann equations in cosmology
  • the rate constant (coefficient)⁶⁷
  • the unit vector in Cartesian coordinates going in the z-direction, usually bold k
  • Unit vector for the third dimension in the quaternion number system (bold k)
  • Unit vector in the z direction

Ll

• L represents:
  • length, used often in quantum mechanics as the size of an infinite square well⁶⁸
  • angular momentum⁶⁹
  • the unit of volume the litre
  • the radiance
  • the space of all integrable real (or complex) functions
  • the space of linear maps, as in L(E,F) or L(E) = End(E)
  • the likelihood function
  • a formal language
  • the operator creating a line graph
  • the lag operator in statistics
  • a Lucas number
  • the Lagrange function⁷⁰
  • Inductance in electromagnetism (measured in henries)
  • A spectral type
• l represents:
  • the unit of volume the litre (often avoided due to confusion with the number 1 and uppercase letter I)
  • the length of a side of a rectangle or a cuboid (e.g. V = lwh; A = lw)
  • the last term of a sequence or series (e.g. Sn = n(a+l)/2)
  • the orbital angular momentum quantum number⁷¹
• ℒ ( L {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}} ) represents:
  • the Lagrangian (sometimes just L)
  • exposure (in particle physics)
• ℓ represents:
  • Mean free path

Mm

• M represents:
  • a manifold
  • a metric space
  • a matroid
  • the unit prefix mega- (106)⁷²
  • the Madelung constant for crystal structures held by ionic bonding
  • the moment of force⁷³
    • Torque when denoted as moment of force
  • molar mass⁷⁴
  • molar mass constant, denoted Mu⁷⁵
  • relative molecular mass, denoted Mr ⁷⁶
  • Magnetization vector field M
  • A spectral type
• m represents:
  • the number of rows in a matrix
  • atomic mass⁷⁷
  • atomic mass constant denoted mu⁷⁸
  • the slope in a linear regression or in any line
  • the mass in mechanics equations⁷⁹
  • the unit metre of length⁸⁰
  • the unit prefix milli (10−3)⁸¹
  • a median of a triangle
  • the overall order of reaction⁸²
  • Magnitude
  • Minute (but the SI abbreviation is "min")
  • Slope
  • Magnetic moment in a magnetization field

Nn

• N represents
  • the unit newton of force⁸³
  • the nine-point center of a triangle
  • Bessel function of the second kind (uncommon)
  • Nitrogen
  • Normal distribution
  • Normal vector
• N represents
  • the neutron number⁸⁴
  • The number of particles of a thermodynamical system⁸⁵: 57 
• NA represents the Avogadro constant
• N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } represents the natural numbers.
• n represents
  • A neutron, which may be shown as n, n0 or 10n
  • the unit prefix nano (10−9)⁸⁶
• n represents
  • the number of columns in a matrix
  • the "number of" in algebraic equations
  • the number density of particles in a volume
  • the index of the nth term of a sequence or series (e.g. tn = a + (n − 1)d)
  • the principal quantum number⁸⁷
  • the amount of a given substance⁸⁸
  • the number concentration⁸⁹
  • the overall order of reaction⁹⁰
  • Refractive index of a material
  • Spherical Bessel function of the second kind (uncommon)
  • An integer

Oo

• O represents
  • the order of asymptotic behavior of a function (upper bound); see Big O notation⁹¹
  • ( 0 , 0 , … , 0 ) {\displaystyle (0,0,\ldots ,0)}  — the Origin of the coordinate system in Cartesian coordinates
  • the circumcenter of a triangle or other cyclic polygon, or more generally the center of a circle
  • A blood type
  • Oxygen
  • A spectral type
• o represents
  • the order of asymptotic behavior of a function (strict upper bound); see Little o notation (also known as "small o notation")
  • the order of an element in a group
• O {\displaystyle \mathbb {O} } represents
  • the octonions⁹²

Pp

• P represents:
  • the pressure in physics equations⁹³: 4 
  • the unit prefix peta (1015)⁹⁴
  • probability in statistics and statistical mechanics⁹⁵: 35 
  • an arbitrary point in geometry
  • with a subscript, a path on that many vertices
  • power, measured in watts⁹⁶
  • Active power in electrical engineering
  • weight measured in newtons⁹⁷
  • Legendre polynomial
  • Phosphorus
  • Polarization
• P {\displaystyle \mathbb {P} } represents
  • the prime numbers⁹⁸
  • Projective space⁹⁹
  • Projection (linear algebra)
  • a probability (as in P(E), which reads "the probability P of event E happening")
• p represents
  • a prime number
  • the numerator of a fraction
  • the unit prefix pico (10−12)¹⁰⁰
  • a proton, often p+ or 11 p
  • the linear momentum in physics equations¹⁰¹
  • the perimeter of a triangle or other polygon
  • generalized momentum¹⁰²
  • the pressure in physics equations¹⁰³
    • Sound pressure
  • Electric dipole moment

Qq

• Q represents:
  • the unit prefix quetta- (1030)¹⁰⁴
  • heat energy¹⁰⁵: 6 
  • electroweak charge, denoted QW¹⁰⁶
  • Reactive power in electrical engineering
  • Volumetric flow rate
• Q {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } represents the rational numbers¹⁰⁷
• q represents:
  • the unit prefix quecto- (10−30)¹⁰⁸
  • a second prime number
  • the denominator of a fraction
  • the quotient resulting from integer division
  • the deceleration parameter in cosmology
  • electric charge of a particle
  • a generalized coordinate¹⁰⁹
  • Quark

Rr

• R represents:
  • the unit prefix ronna- (1027)¹¹⁰
  • the Ricci tensor
  • the circumradius of a cyclic polygon such as a triangle
  • an arbitrary relation
  • Riemann curvature tensor
  • Electrical resistance
  • Molar gas constant
• R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } represents the set of real numbers and various algebraic structures built upon the set of real numbers, such as R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} .
• r represents:
  • the unit prefix ronto- (10−27)¹¹¹
  • the radius of a circle or sphere¹¹²
  • radial distance in a polar coordinate system or spherical coordinate system
  • the inradius of a triangle or other tangential polygon
  • the ratio of a geometric series (e.g. arn−1)
  • the remainder resulting from integer division
  • the separation of two objects, for example in Coulomb's law
  • a position vector¹¹³
  • the rate of concentration change of B (due to chemical reaction) denoted rB¹¹⁴

Ss

• S represents
  • a sum
  • the unit siemens of electric conductance¹¹⁵
  • the unit sphere (with superscript denoting dimension)
  • the scattering matrix
  • entropy
  • action in joule-seconds¹¹⁶
  • Apparent power in electrical engineering
  • Area
  • Spin operator
  • Sulfur
  • Symmetric group
    • with a subscript, a symmetric group on that many objects
• s represents:
  • an arclength¹¹⁷
  • a path length¹¹⁸
  • the displacement in mechanics equations
  • the unit second of time¹¹⁹
  • a complex variable s = σ + i t in analytic number theory
  • the semiperimeter of a triangle or other polygon
  • Strange quark
  • Specific entropy
• 𝒮 ( S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} ) represents a system's action in physics
• S {\displaystyle \mathbb {S} } represents
  • the sedenions

Tt

• T represents:
  • the top element of a lattice
  • a tree (a special kind of graph)
  • temperature in physics equations¹²⁰: 4 
  • the unit tesla of magnetic flux density¹²¹
  • the unit prefix tera (1012)¹²²
  • the stress–energy tensor
  • tension in physics
  • an arbitrary monad
  • the time it takes for one oscillation¹²³
  • kinetic energy¹²⁴
  • Torque¹²⁵
  • A spectral type
  • Tritium
  • Period, the reciprocal of frequency
• t represents:
  • time in graphs, functions or equations¹²⁶
  • variable of integration
  • a term in a sequence or series (e.g. tn = tn−1 + 5)
  • the imaginary part of the complex variable s = σ + it in analytic number theory
  • the sample statistic resulting from a Student's t-test
  • the half life of a quantity, denoted as t1⁄2¹²⁷
  • Top quark
• T {\displaystyle \mathbb {T} } represents
  • the trigintaduonions

Uu

• U represents:
  • a U-set which is a set of uniqueness
  • a unitary operator
  • in thermodynamics, the internal energy of a system
  • a forgetful functor
  • Potential energy
  • Uranium
• U(n) represents the unitary group of degree n
• ∪ represents the union operator
• u represents:
  • the initial velocity in mechanics equations¹²⁸¹²⁹
  • Up quark

Vv

• V represents:
  • Vanadium
  • the unit volt of voltage¹³⁰
  • the set of vertices in a graph
  • a vector space
  • potential energy¹³¹
  • molar volume denoted by Vm¹³²
• v represents
  • the final velocity in mechanics equations¹³³¹³⁴
  • frequency,¹³⁵ especially when referring to electromagnetic waves¹³⁶
  • a specific volume in classical mechanics¹³⁷
  • the rate of concentration change of B (due to chemical reaction) denoted vB¹³⁸
  • the rate of reaction based on amount concentration denoted v or vc
  • the rate of reaction based on number concentration denoted v or vC

Ww

• W represents:
  • the unit watt of power¹³⁹
  • work, both mechanical and thermodynamical¹⁴⁰: 8–9 
  • in thermodynamics, the number of possible quantum states in Boltzmann's entropy formula
  • weight measured in newtons¹⁴¹
  • Lambert's W function¹⁴²
  • Tungsten
  • W boson
  • Work function
  • Wiener process
• w represents:
  • the coordinate on the fourth axis in four-dimensional space
  • work in classical mechanics
  • Width

Xx

• X represents
  • a random variable
  • a triangle center
  • the first part of a bipartite graph
• Ẋ represents
  • the rate of change of quantity X¹⁴³
• x represents
  • a realized value of a random variable
  • an unknown variable, most often (but not always) from the set of real numbers, while a complex unknown would rather be called z, and an integer by a letter like m from the middle of the alphabet
  • the coordinate on the first or horizontal axis in a Cartesian coordinate system,¹⁴⁴ or the viewport in a graph or window in computer graphics; the abscissa
    • Axis in the direction of travel of an aerospace vehicle (longitudinal axis)
  • a mole fraction¹⁴⁵
  • Variable to be determined in an algebraic equation
  • A vector in linear algebra

Yy

• Y represents:
  • the unit prefix yotta- (1024)¹⁴⁶
  • Bessel function of the second kind
  • the second part of a bipartite graph
  • Yttrium
  • Gross domestic product
• Y represents:
  • a second random variable
• y represents:
  • the unit prefix yocto- (10−24)¹⁴⁷
  • a realized value of a second random variable
  • a second unknown variable
  • the coordinate on the second or vertical axis (backward axis in three dimensions) in a Cartesian coordinate system,¹⁴⁸ or in the viewport of a graph or window in computer graphics; the ordinate
    • The port-starboard axis (transverse axis) of an aerospace vehicle
  • a mole fraction¹⁴⁹

Zz

• Z represents:
  • the unit prefix zetta (1021)¹⁵⁰
  • the atomic number or proton number of an element in chemistry¹⁵¹
  • a standardized normal random variable in probability theory and statistics
  • Partition function
  • in meteorology, the radar reflectivity factor
  • Electrical impedance
  • Z boson
  • Compressibility factor
• Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } represents the integers¹⁵²
• z represents:
  • the unit prefix zepto (10−21)¹⁵³
  • the coordinate on the third or vertical axis in three dimensional space¹⁵⁴
    • The vertical axis or altitude in an aerospace vehicle
  • the view depth in computer graphics, see also "z-buffering"
  • the argument of a complex function, or any other variable used to represent a complex value
  • in astronomy, wavelength redshift¹⁵⁵: 9 
  • a third unknown variable
  • the collision frequency of A with A is denoted zA(A)¹⁵⁶
  • the collision frequency factor is denoted zAB¹⁵⁷

See also

• Blackboard bold letters used in mathematics
• Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
• List of letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
• Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols
• Glossary of mathematical symbols

References

1. Weisstein, Eric W. "Triangle". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2022-03-21. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Triangle.html ↩

2. "Hexadecimal - Hexadecimal and character sets - GCSE Computer Science Revision". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 2022-03-21. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zp73wmn/revision/1 ↩

3. "DECIMAL function". support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2022-03-22. https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/decimal-function-ee554665-6176-46ef-82de-0a283658da2e#:~:text=A%20radix%20greater%20than%2010,#NUM!%20or%20#VALUE! ↩

4. "BIPM - SI base units". bipm.org. 2014-10-07. Archived from the original on 2014-10-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20141007203046/http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/section2-1.html ↩

5. "BIPM - SI derived units". bipm.org. 2014-10-07. Archived from the original on 2014-10-07. Retrieved 2022-03-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20141007193455/http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/section2-2.html ↩

6. Jensen, William B. (December 2005). "The Origins of the Symbols A and Z for Atomic Weight and Number". Journal of Chemical Education. 82 (12): 1764. Bibcode:2005JChEd..82.1764J. doi:10.1021/ed082p1764. ISSN 0021-9584. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed082p1764 ↩

7. "22.1: Helmholtz Energy". Chemistry LibreTexts. 2014-06-21. Retrieved 2022-03-23. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/22%3A_Helmholtz_and_Gibbs_Energies/22.01%3A_Helmholtz_Energy ↩

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